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THE MODERN 



PACKING HOUSE 



A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DESIGNING, CONSTRUCTION, 
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF A MODERN ABATTOIR AND 
PACKING HOUSE, ACCORDING TO PRESENT AMERICAN 
PRACTICE, INCLUDING FORMULAS FOR THE MANU- 
FACTURE OF LARD AND SAUSAGE, THE CURING 
OF MEATS, ETC., AND METHODS OF CON- 
VERTING ALL BY-PRODUCTS INTO 
COMMERCIAL ARTICLES 



BY 

F. W. WILDER 

Former General Superintendent Swift & Company and 
schwarzchild & sulzberger company, chicago 




PUBLISHERS 

NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. 

CHICAGO 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

DEC 11 1905 

_ Copyright Entry 
CLASS c^ XXc. No. 

/ X4,; 3 5- 

COPY B. 



/b 






Copyright, 1905, 
By NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. 



All Rights Reservpd. 



PRESS OF 

Ice and Refrigeration 

CHICAGO. 



PREFACE. 

In the preparation of this work, the first complete 
treatise upon the subject of the packing house business 
ever published, two objects. have jbeen kept constantly 
in view. It was determined, first, to present in a con- 
venient and simple form, practical suggestions, tables 
and formula that are needed daily in the operation of a 
plant and in the prosecution of the packing house busi- 
ness along modern lines. Second, it was determined to 
describe each operation in all the various ramifications 
of the business, from the unloading of the animals at 
the pens to the production of the finished product and 
the disposition of same, in the same order in which the 
different operations are actually conducted. 

In adopting this course, the author and the publishers 
have been largely influenced by the ^fact that inquiries 
are constantly being made asking for information re- 
garding the various methods pursued by packers in 
obtaining the results described in this work, which would 
seem to indicate that this arrangement of the subject 
matter would best subserve the needs of a very large 
proioortion of those operating and conducting packing, 
slaughtering and rendering plants, both large and small. 



4 PREFACE 

All the various operations described and subjects 
treated upon have been carefully indexed at the end of 
the volume, so that any matter upon which it is desired 
to obtain instant information may be easily and readily 
found. In addition to this, the author has arranged the 
chapters and the operations described in each, together 
with descriptions of the machinery and appliances re- 
quired for same, in the order in which the various 
functions should be performed in the packing house, as 
nearly as it is possible to do so. In fact, the established 
packer or butcher, as well as the new beginner, if he 
will carefully digest the contents of this work, will find 
that he has ready to his hand a vast amount of valuable 
information of an absolutely reliable character, hither- 
to unattainable, the knowledge of which will aid him 
materially in conducting his business to the best ad- 
vantage. 

The chapters on the proper construction and arrange- 
ment of the various departments of the modern packing 
house, contain information rarely found in a work of 
this character, and which is usually obtained only by 
the expenditure of a large sum for expert advice. The 
author has given the reader the full benefit of his many 
years' experience in the construction and operation of 
some of the largest, most completely equipped and up- 
to-date packing house plants in the world. 

A large proportion of the contents of this work is 
devoted to tests showing the value and yields of the 
various products of a modern packing house, based on 
prices and conditions existing at the time they were 
made, in which the percentages and comparisons are 



PREFACE 5 

absolutely reliable, and which will prove invaluable to 
those hitherto unable to obtain such data. 

The numerous formulas given for the manufacture 
and preservation of the various products of the packing 
house are those which have been proven to be the best 
after many years of experience in using same. In every 
instance they have been put into the simplest form 
possible, so that no mistake can be made in applying them 
to the requirements of the reader. 

The information furnished in these pages, which has 
been carefully compiled and arranged, is based almost 
entirely upon the author's own personal observation and 
experience, there being very little mere theorizing upon 
the possibilities of what may be accomplished by adopt- 
ing certain prescribed methods. For this reason es- 
pecially it will be found of great practical value to all 
who are interested in any way in the packing house 
business. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Construction of Modern Packing Houses 17-48 

Introduction. Suggestions on construction of plant. 
Construction of packing houses in general. Insurance. 
Plans for hog slaughterhouse. Plans for hog and cattle 
slaughtering plant. Plan for small slaughterhouse. 
Cattle, hog and sheep slaughterhouse. 

CHAPTER II. 

Refrigeration in the Packing House 49-71 

Systems of refrigeration. Theory of refrigeration. Re- 
frigeration for fresh killed carcasses. The packer's rule 
for refrigeration. Insulation. Temperatures required. 
Different applications of refrigeration in the packing 
house. " Curtain " system of refrigeration. Arrange- 
ment of piping in freezers. Various types of coolers. 
Types of coolers to be avoided. 

CHAPTER III. 

Cattle Handling, Slaughtering and Chilling 72-101 

How to handle cattle before slaughtering. Knocking 
or stunning cattle. Sticking and heading cattle. Foot 
skinning. Ripping open and leg breaking. Flooring 
cattle. Breast sawing and caul pulling. Fell cutting. 
Beef spreaders. Rumping. Fell beating. Gutting. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

Backing. Tail sawing. Splitting. Neck splitting. 
Bruise trimming. Skirt trimming. Beef weighing. 
Coolers. Care of coolers. Temperatures in coolers. Ef- 
fect of coolers in preserving meats. Suggestions for han- 
dling heef in coolers. Trimming of beef. Eibbing of 
beef. Loading beef. Weighing and packing beef by lots. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Dressing Yields of Cattle 102-115 

Tests showing yields of meats and by-products of cat- 
tle. Yield of twenty-two native cattle. Yield of fifty- 
nine Texas cattle. Yield of twenty cattle. Yield of 
thirty-four cattle. Different cuts of beef. 

CHAPTEE V. 

Labor in Cattle Killing 116-123 

Lists of men employed and wages paid. Cattle kill- 
ing department for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy 
cattle per hour ; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Back . 
cooler gang for sixty cattle ; ditto, seventy cattle per hour ; 
ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Tail trimmers and 
head boners for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy cat- 
tle per hour; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. 

CHAPTER YL 

Hides 123-133 

Handling of hides on killing floor. Proper storage for 
hides. Shrinkage of hides. Grading of hides. Grubs 
in hides. Salting of hides. Building of packs of hides. 
Trimming green hides. 

CHAPTER VIL 

Tallow, Oleo Oil and Stearine 134-165 

Oleo fat. Construction of oleo oil house. Location of 
hashers, etc., in oil house. Grading for oleo oil. Dia- 
gram of oleo oil kettle. Enterprise hasher. Settling ket- 
tle for oleo oil. Oil house instructions. Oleo seeding 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

truck. Knuckle type oleo oil press. Oleo oil receiver. 
Oleo oil and stearine packages. Stearine packer. Oil 
house yields. Scrap vat. Tests on oil house yields. 
Mutton fat. Test on handling fats in oil house. Kidney 
and cod pickings and bones. Yields from kidney and 
cod fat. Test on oleo scrap. Labor in oil house. 

CHAPTER YIII. 

Preparation of Heads and Feet of Cattle 166-175 

Bone department. Bone products. Horns. Cattle 
head splitter. Skulls. Jaw bones. Feet. Revolving rack 
for bone washing. Bone saw. Hoof puller. JSTeatsfoot 
oil. Sinew glue stock. Yield of heads and feet of cat- 
tle. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Preparation of Casings 176-183 

Essential points in the handling of casings. Classifi- 
cation of casings. Yields of casings. 

CHAPTER X. 

The Tank House 184-208 

Construction and operation of a tank house. Diagrams 
for construction of a modern tank house. Plans for the 
construction of rendering tank. How to cook a tank. 
Hydraulic lard and tallow hoop press. Pressing tankage. 
Hydraulic tankage and fertilizer press. Tank water. 
Double " stick " dr3'ers. Estimate of production and 
value of tankage made by evaporating tank water. Table 
for tank water. Test on tankage. Test on trimmings 
and seam fat. Test on condemned hogs. Comparative 
test of sheep heads and jaws to tank and bone house. 
Test on tripe trimmings. Test on condemned livers. 
Test on cattle pecks to tank. Test on cattle paunches to 
tank. Test on hog stomachs to tank. Test on wind pipes 
to tank. Test on sheep paunches and plucks to tank. 
Test on sheep offal. Test on neck trimming from trim- 
ming floor. Test on sheep feet to tank. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 

CHAPTEK XI. 

Beef Trimmings 209-233 

Beef pickling formulas. Weasancl meat. Beef tongues. 
Test on freezing beef tongues. Canning tongues. Test 
on canning tongiies. Livers. Liver truck. Design for 
modern defrosting room. SAveetbreads. Beef hearts. 
Tails. Beef hams. Shipping beef hams. Handling and 
formula for curing beef hams. Smoking test on regular 
beef hams- Shrinkage on smoked dried beef hams. For- 
mulas for preservaline. Tripe. Tripe tests. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Sheep Dressing and Chilling 234-2^6 

" String gang." Diagram showing arrangement for 
sheep killing with " string gang." Apparatus for hoist- 
ing sheep to sticking rail. Sheep dressing. Table of 
wages paid sheep butchers. Chilling sheep. Lamb 
tongues tests. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Hog Slaughtering and Chilling 24:7-272 

Refrigeration of hogs. The hog slaughterhouse. LTn- 
loading the hogs from cars. Construction of pens for 
hogs and sheep. Handling ,of live hogs. Penning of 
hogs. Shackling of hogs. Sticking of hogs. Scalding 
and scraping of hogs. Ham facing and gutting hogs. 
Leaf lard. Plan for hog slaughtering room, pens, etc. 
Hog killing room. Splitting hogs. Temperatures in 
chill room. Care in chill room. Section hog killing 
floor showing carrying rails, etc. Shrinkage in chill 
room. Tests on shrinkage of hogs in cooler. Cost of hog 
killing gang. Cost of hog cutting gang. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Pork Cuts and Yields 273-303 

Cutting floors. Diagram and sections showing detail 
of hog cutting room. Percentages of yield. Te^t show- 



10 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

ing yield of sides. Test showing yield of different cuts. 
Special test on lot of mixed hogs. Percentages of cuts 
on hams, shoidders, sides and miscellaneous. Mess pork. 
Clear back port. Brisket pork rib. Loin pork. Belly 
pork. Back pork. Loin clear pork. Dry salt meats. 

CHAPTEE XV. 

Curing of Hams and Dey Salt Meats 304-330 

Cutting and trimming of hams. Pumping hams. Ham 
pump. Formula for pickle where hams have been piled 
in salt. Formula for pickle where hams have not been 
piled in salt. Curing hams. Formula for pumping 
pickle. Sirup curing. Cost of pickle. Using second 
hand pickle. California hams. Sweet pickle California 
hams and shoulders. Skinned hams. Table showing 
time for curing of hams to smoke. Boiled ham. Kules 
for boiling hams. Shrinkage in boiling hams from sweet 
pickle weight to shipping weight. Eolled boneless pork 
loins. Dry salt meats. Cost of curing dry salt meats. 
Curing of English meats. Curing of long cut hams. 
Color of English meats. Salting of meats. Piling of 
meats. Overhauling of meats. Shipping ages for Eng- 
lish meats. Packing of English meats. Yields long cut 
hams and Cumbeilands. 

CHAPTEE XYI. 

The Smoke House 331-343 

Handling of meats for the smoke house. Soaking of 
meats for the smoke house. Handling of meats in the 
smoke house. Temperatures in a smoke house. Shrink- 
age in smoke house. Diagrams showing detail of double 
truck for smoke house rack. Coloring vat. Formula for 
coloring sweet pickle meats. Formula for coloring sweet 
pickle sides to avoid smoking. Paper for wrapping 
smoked meats. Canvasing meats. Whitewashing meats. 
Whitewash for meat canvas. Yellowwash for meat can- 
vas. Smoking dried beef. Shrinkage on dried beef. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 11 

CHAPTEE XVII. 

Domestic Sausage 344-384 

Preservative for sausage. Summer sausage, pork saus- 
age and tongues. Packing fresh beef, pork hearts, etc. 
Curing and preserving pork and beef trimmings. 
Cured products used in making sausage. Sausage fillers. 
Smoke house arrangement for smoking domestic sausage. 
Inside water color for domestic sausage. Inside dry color 
for domestic sausage. Outside color for sausage casings. 
Varnish for bologna sausage casings. Pork, bologna, 
knoblaugh, leona, Polish, Frankfurt, blood, tongue and 
liver sausages. Formulas for making the different kinds 
of sausage. Boneless pigs feet. Head cheese. Minced 
ham. Cooked pressed ham. Tests on skinned shoulders 
for cooked pressed ham. New Jersey ham. Berlin ham. 
Boneless ham. Cottage ham. Stuffed hog heads. Scrap- 
ple. Bologna sausage in oil. Frankfurts in oil. Smok- 
ing schedule for sausage. Cooking schedule for sausage. 
Shrinkage of domestic sausage. 

CHAPTEE XVIII. 

Summer and Dry Sausage 385-410 

Air drying and smoking. Preservative for dry sausage. 
Preparing cases for summer sausage. Dry room caution. 
Formulas for eervelat. Formulas for farmer sausage, 
Holsteiner sausage, Swedish medwurst, Braunschweiger, 
D'Arles, Italian salami, Milanese salami, German salami, 
Hungarian salami, Thuringer salami, Mortadella, Lyon 
and Gothair sausages. Lehigh Valley summer sausage. 

CHAPTEE XIX. ^ 

Lard and Grease- 411-441 

Lard refining. Method of using fullers earth. Tank 
for mixing fullers earth and lard. Fullers earth kettle. 
Lard cooling cylinder. Compound lard. Deodorizing 
cotton seed oil. Deodorizing tank for cotton seed oil. 
Filter press for lard or oleo oil. Care of filter press. 
Kettle rendered lard. Weight of lard packages. Neutral 



12 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

iard. Tests on back fat converted to No. , 2 neutral ket- 
tle rendered lard and prime steam lard. Cold tests on 
grease. 

CHAPTER XX. 

BuTTERIiS^E AND PROCESS BuTTER 4-i2-468 

Plans and sections of modern butterine factory. Han- 
dling of milk in making butterine. Cream ripening ap- 
paratus. Churns used in butterine factory. Milk and 
cream for butterine. " Starter " for butterine. Low 
; grade butterine. Formulas for making butterine. 
Shrinkage and cost of butterine. Cost of equipment for 
butterine factory. Diagrams showing construction and 
arrangement of machinery for process butter factory. 
Milk and cream for process butter. Equiijment for mak- 
ing process butter. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Minor Products 469-483 

Beef extract. Making of beef extract from canning 
liquids. Extract from beef hearts. Formula for and 
machinery used in making beef fluid. Pigs feet. Ma- 
chinery for splitting pigs feet. Tests showing cost in 
detail of pigs feet put up in different size packages. Pig 
tongues. Test showing cost of pig tongues put up in 
different sizes of packages. Formula for export pig 
tongue pickle. Pig snouts. Tests showing cost of pigs 
snouts put up in different sizes of packages. Hog hair 
and bristles. , 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Fertilizer and Blood Albumen 484-496 

Composition of fertilizer. Plan and sections for con- 
struction and arrangement of fertilizer room. Tankage 
for fertilizer. Analysis of fertilizer. Tests showing 
value and yield from beef blood for fertilizer; ditto, hog 
blood for fertilizer; ditto, sheep blood for fertilizer. Pro- 
duction of albumen from beef blood. Settling pan for 
draining serum from blood. Details of home-made blood 
pump. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 

CHAPTEE XXIII. 

Boxes and Cooperage 497-509 

Specifications for boxes for pork packing department, 
canning department, sausage department, lard refinery ; 
also boxes for beef cutting, offal and freezer. Fresh pork 
packing boxes. Dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing 
boxes. Cooperage specifications for different size barrels. 
Government specifications for packages. Eefrigerator 
boxes. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Miscellaneous Information 510-533 

Convenient devices. Calking device. Elevator hoist. 
Barrel truck. Hog traveler. Hand cart. Tinning hooks. 
Thermometers. Thermometer scales. Wire or brine pipe 
covering. Tests to ■ determine value of paunch manure 
as fuel. Fattening chickens. Formula for making paint. 
Hectograph filler. Refrigerator cars. Icing refrigerator 
cars. Canning of meats. Glue. Chemical department. 
Kosher killing. Inspection by United States govern- 
ment. Branch houses. 

CHAPTEE XXV. 

Departmental Accounting 534-554 

The division of labor in large packing house plants 
on departmental basis. Method of assigning debits and 
credits to each department. Method of charging for raw 
material used in different departments. Method of 
crediting and debiting cost of labor in each department. 



CHAPTER I. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING 
HOUSES. 

IjSTTKODUCTORY. 

Probably no industry in the United States has shown 
such rapid growth in so short a space of time as has the 
packing house business. The modern packing house as 
it exists today may be said to be less than thirty years 
old since its first inception, and one naturally inquires 
the causes which led to the growth of this industry to its 
present proportions in so short a time, ranking practi- 
cally fifth in importance among the industries of the 
United States. The one main factor which has been 
instrumental in the consummation of this immense 
growth is " Concentration "^ — the watchword of the day 
in all large and successful industries. 

Before the modern packing house was inaugurated the 
method in vogue was to either ship or drive the live stock 
to the point of consumption, where it was slaughtered and 
put on the market in a crude and expensive way, as com- 
pared with the methods of toda}^ In the general evolu- 
tion of the business the first step toward making the 
modern packing house was the concentration of live 
stock at a few central market points where it was offered 
for sale. Prior to tliat time it would have been impossible 
for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more 
than supply its local demands. 



18 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

In the earlier days of the live stock market buyers 
purchased their supplies where they could and shi^Dped 
them, alive, to the places where the animals were to be 
consumed. At this point Yankee ingenuity and energy 
interceded and devised the opposite plan, viz: that of 
shipping the live stock to a few central points and there 
changing it to dressed meats, which were then shipped to 




FIG. 1.— LIVE STOCK GOING TO SCALE. 

the various markets as required. The development of 
this plan inaugurated a new line of business now recog- 
nized as one of the most important of modern industries 
— central stock yards and packing house centers. 

One of the first and at present the largest in the world, 
of these central live stock depots, is the Union Stock 
Yards, Chicago, 111., U. S. A., where also are located the 
largest slaughter houses. Views of these great yards 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 19 

are shown on pages 14, 15 and 16, preceding this chapter. 
Fig. 1 shows one of the places where live stock, as fast 
as purchased, is run over the scales and weighed, prior 
to delivery to the purchaser; Fig. 2, a view of the live 
stock pens and an alle^^way on a busy day; Fig. 3, a view 
of a pen containing choice yearling cattle and Fig. 4, one 
containing a bunch of choice Polled- Angus cattle. 




FIG. 



A BUSY ALLEY. 



In the development of the modern packing house plant 
perhaps the first radical innovation, and, doubtless, es- 
sential requirement for success, was the adoption of the 
meat cooler or refrigerator and the modern system of 
mechanical refrigeration ; for this, and this alone, made it 
practicable to promptly chill the carcasses as soon as the 
animals were slaughtered and keep the meats in condi- 



20 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



tion to stand exposure to higher temperatures without 
deterioration. It enabled the packer to keep up contin- 
uous, economical operation of his plant and yet sell his 
meats as the exigencies of the market might require. It 
enabled him also to furnish first-class meats at any and 
all times. Furthermore the operation of the refrigerat- 
ing plant enabled him to freeze the lesser parts, such as 
livers, kidneys, hearts, etc., and thus, in the first 




FIG. 3.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE YEARLING CATTLE. 

place, prevent losses through the rapid decomposition of 
these parts when exposed to high temperatures, and, in 
the second place, control the market for such product, 
preventing an over supply at one period and a scarcity 
at another. 

The next step, and of almost equal importance, was 
the adoption and developing of the modern refrigerator 
car, by means of which the packer was enabled to ship 
his dressed beef to the point where it was to be consumed, 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 21 

and with this and with the improved facilities offered by 
the railways, the business of shipping fresh dressed beef 
to any portion of the country, was made possible. 

When the pioneers of the business first broached the 
idea of killing cattle in Chicago and selling the dressed 
beef in Boston it was considered wholly impracticable 
and the people that started the business were looked upon 
as a '' little queer." There were many bitter experi- 
ences, before it was accomplished, in the way of losses; 






FIG. 4.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE POLLED-ANGUS CATTLE. 



for shipping perishable articles so long a distance caused 
the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper 
methods were discot^ered, but with the tenacity of the new 
beginner and the people who felt that they were on the 
right lines, these obstacles were soon overcome and to- 
day meats are delivered in eastern markets in a far bet- 
ter and a more healthful condition than they were ever 
offered to the public under the old methods. 



22 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Another feature that made the biisiuess possible was 
the fact that on the vast plains of the west innumerable 
cattle were being raised at a minimum cost, whereas in the 
thickly settled east, in the large manufacturing districts, 
was found a ready market for this beef. The i^acking 
business of this country would practically be impossible 
in older countries that are thickly settled, as the cost of 
raising live stock would be actually about the same in 
all parts and the cost of shipping from one point to an- 
other would only add to the original cost. In this coun- 
try with the low cost of raising the animal on practi- 
cally valueless land, except for grazing purposes, the 
eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable to 
compete, hence the practice of raising live stock in the 
west and consuming it in the east, and the concentration 
of live stock at the large markets, with the improved 
devices of today, made the business a possibility and the 
money and energy expended in adopting the best methods 
has caused its growth to its present magnitude. 

Another very important feature in adding to the 
growth of this industry is the great saving effected by 
utilizing the by-products. When cattle were killed pro- 
miscuously throughout the country this was impossible, 
for a man killing a few cattle for some local point could 
not in any way save the by-products, consequently they 
were all lost. Neither could the small killer afford the 
necessary appliances with which to turn the material out 
economically and compete with one doing business on a 
modern scale, any more than the ancient cobbler sitting 
at his bench could afford the labor-saving machines and 
devices which we see in the modern shoe factories. 
Furthermore, the general health of the public has been 
served by having their meats delivered in a much better 
condition than thev could be at the time when the animal 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 23 

was killed and the meat consumed without having the 
animal heat thoroughly removed — a matter which is 
conceded by scientists as being deleterious to health. 
That the meat is delivered to the consumer in better 
condition than it was formerly is generally conceded 
by all, and the foreigners who visit this country are in- 
variably impressed with the superior meats with which 
they are served at our hotels and restaurants. 

As regards the by-products which are saved in the 
modern plants, the value of these products, which under 
the older methods were almost entirely lost, is enor- 
mous. The heads and feet, which were ordinarily 
thrown away, are today worked up into various prod- 
ucts, all of which have a market value. The blood, 
tankage, etc., are all turned into commercial commodi- 
ties, and the saving of these different parts creates a 
handsome profit in the business, a profit which has been 
entirely lost heretofore. Further details on this matter 
will be given in the chapters treating on the various 
by-products. 

The next step in the development of the packing 
house business, and a step which was considered a few 
years ago as an impossibility, is the shipping of refrig^ 
erated beef to England. By the most careful and detailed 
attention, and the utilization of modern methods, it is 
possible to kill cattle or sheep in the i hottest months of 
the year in Kansas City, Omaha, or Chicago, ship the 
meats in refrigerator cars to the seaboard, where it is 
transferred into refrigerated rooms on the steamers 
and thence to England, the meat being sometimes four 
or five weeks en route from the abattoir where the 
animal is killed to the place where the meat finally 
reaches the consumer, and though the English authori- 
ties give it the most critical examination, it ihvariably 



24 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

passes. America furnishes the largest part of the meats 
consumed in that thickly populated country. It is true 
that for man}^ years we have supplied foreign markets 
with cured and canned meats, but the fresh meat trade 
in England is a business developed within a compara- 
tively few years and has today grown to an immense 
magnitude. The reports of the Bureau of Statistics of 
the government of the United States show that for the 
fiscal year ending in June, 1904, there were exported 
from the United StatQs a total of 57,468,338 pounds of 
canned beef and 299,579,671 pounds of fresh beef. Of 
the latter 298,117,225 pounds were sent to the United 
Kingdom. Of the canned beef 45,155,744 pounds went 
to the United Kingdom. There were also exported in 
the same year a total of 76,924,174 pounds of tallow; 
249,665,941 pounds of bacon; 194,948,864 pounds of ham; 
9,479,312 pounds of canned pork; 18,633,820 pounds of 
fresh pork ; 112,225,176 pounds of salted or pickled pork ; 
561,302,643 pounds of lard, and 52,605,545 pounds of 
lard compounds. The total value of the meat and meat 
products exported from this country in 1904 is given in 
the report of the Secretary of Agriculture as over 
$174,000,000, not including hides, glue, grease and scrap, 
of which over $5,000,000 worth was exported. The bulk 
of all these exports went to England. 

Germany, France and other European countries 
could also be supplied in the same way, as they undoubt- 
edly will at some future day when their tariffs are 
i'evised or reciprocity treaties are made so as to allow 
the importation. 

SUGGESTIONS ON CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT. 

This is so voluminous a proposition that it is rather 
difficult to cover thoroughly the many points which may 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 25 

come up, but the following may serve to give those con- 
templating building, or changing, some valuable infor- 
mation. 

In the building or the starting of a packing house 
plant it is only within the last few years that this matter 
was studied from a practical standpoint so as to get 
the best results for the least expenditure in operating 
same. Formerly it was considered proper to build the 
killing house and coolers on the ground level, excavating 
for a cellar for the storage of some of the products ; the 
power house, tank rooms and other buildings for the dis- 
position of by-products were put anywhere without 
reference to convenience or to economy in operation. 
Later experience has proven that it is economical to 
slaughter cattle on the upper floor of the building, and 
instead of spreading out on the ground and covering a 
large area, to build higher with a correspondingly 
smaller area, and utilizing the floors below for various 
purposes. With a proper incline cattle will make an 
elevation of 40 or 50 feet without detriment to condition, 
and it is much cheaper to walk the animals up to 
this elevation than it is to kilhthem on the ground floor 
and elevate the different products to their respective 
departments. 

Gravitation is the cheapest force which we have at 
bur disposal, hence it is conceded to^ be the best way 
to have the cattle killed on tlje upper floor, and pass the 
carcass and the offal of the animals by gravity to a lower 
floor, where it is all treated and made ready for the 
respective departments. This floor should be on a level 
with the top of the tanks for the purpose of rendering the 
material ; also the other departments, such as the oleo, or 
the bone house for handling heads and feet, etc., should 
be, as nearly as possible, on this level, although it is 



26 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



always considered advisable to have them disconnected, 
as they are the departments in which is generally found 
the greatest liability of fire. Fig, 5 gives a cross section 
of one of the largest plants built on this idea, and the 
reader will note that the cattle are slaughtered on the 
upper floor, the offal being passed by gravity to the floor 
below, where it is worked up. Heads and feet are sent 




FIG. 5.— CROSS SECTION THROUGH MODERN PLANT, SHOWING DEPARTMENTS. 

from there to the bone house; all fats go directly to the 
oil house; on this floor casings are cleaned and packed 
ready for shipping; tripe is cleaned, ready to be sent to 
the curing cellars; livers, tongues, hearts, etc., are 
trimmed ready for the respective coolers. Thus it will 
be seen that all this material, which amounts to many 
tons per day, on an average killing, has found its way 
to places specially provided at a nominal cost for labor. 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 27 

Floors below can be readily utilized for storage and the 
handling of the products, storage space in a packing- 
house being something that is never found wasteful. 
From the killing floor the beef finds its way into the 
coolers, which in this particular case were double- 
decked, the beef necessarily^ being lowered when being 
sent to the lower cooler. Fig. 6 shows a cross section of 
a double-deck beef cooler. 




FIG. 6.— CROSS SECTION DOUBLE DECK eSeEF COOLER. 



Economy is the first consideration of building in this 
matter. The economy of operation is obvious to any 
practical packer and while this idea might not be ada]3t- 
able for a very small business it can be adopted to good 
advantage in many places where it is not in use today. 

The next consideration is to have the buildings in 
which the by-products are to be handled situated con- 



28 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

veniently and at the same time not connected directly 
so as to increase fire hazard. In constructions of this 
kind, insurance companies generally require seventy- 
five feet of space between buildings ; less than that means 
an additional cost of insurance on account of exposure. 
Even at this distance, however, they require iron doors 
on openings and either iron shutters or metal frames 
with wire glass windows on all wall openings. 

However, comparatively little need be said on in- 
surance conditions of a packing house, as these vary 
largely at different points and in the construction of a 
plant one must be governed very largely by the local 
requirements. 

Another and very important consideration is the 
locating of the power house nearest to the building which 
uses the largest amount of steam. For instance, in pack- 
ing house practice the tank house, bone house and oil 
house are the largest consumers of live steam, hence it 
is obvious that the power plant should be situated as 
near them as possible, with less regard for other build- 
ings, such as killing floors, coolers, etc., using little or no 
steam. 

Another point which is rarel}^ given the considera- 
tion it deserves, and in many cases it is impossible to 
improve it, is the track service. When goods are ready 
to load and large and expensive load gangs are on the 
pay-roll, delay in furnishing cars, switching, etc., is very 
expensive and in planning a plant this is a very vital 
point. How to secure the greatest economy in shipping 
out the products should be studied at all times, hence it 
is advisable to have as many tracks as possible entering 
the buildings and about the buildings : aiming to classify 
and load different products on different tracks, so that 
the shipment of one class of goods will not interfere with 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 29 

that of another. Where x>larLts are being remodeled, the 
facilities at hand are generally the best to be obtained, 
but where it is the intention to build anew this is a point 
that should be studied carefully; it is poor policy to do 
all the business on one or two tracks where it is possible 
to obtain more. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PACKING HOUSES IN GENERAL. 

The author will not attempt to go into extensive 
details, as space will not permit. The larger plants are 
always open for inspection by visitors, and people desir- 
ing detailed information in this line are generally en- 
abled to obtain it by personal inspection. There are, 
however, many questions which arise with people who 
anticipate the necessity of building and it is the author's 
intention to give, in a general way, some details which 
may be useful for the guidance of those wishing to build 
a packing house. 

Butchers supply houses, and packing house ma- 
chinery dealers or manufacturers, are frequently 
asked, '' Where can we get information regarding the 
best method for building a packing house ! " ' ' What is 
the best plan for construction of a packing house? " 
This is a hard question to ansAver, as there are so many 
different conditions to be met at each local point that it is 
impracticable to answer the question specifically, and 
hence only general principles can be laid down and the de- 
tails must be adapted to the local conditions in order to 
make the project practical and successful. The author 
proposes to give general plans, first, for a plant for the 
killing and curing of hogs only; second, for a house de- 
signed for killing cattle mainly, and a few hogs; and 
third, for a plant designed for killing hogs and a few 
cattle; and he hopes that the ideas thus submitted may 
be of such a nature that they can be enlarged' upon or 



30 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

curtailed to such a degree as will make them valuable 
where new buildings or changes are contemplated. 

About 75 per cent of the money expended in convert- 
ing the raw into a finished product in a packing house, 
is for labor; the otlier 25 per cent is for interest, insur- 
ance, administrative expense, supplies, etc. ; hence, a 
plant that is so designed as to provide for operation in 
the most economical manner and at the same time pro- 
vides for economy of construction is apparently the 
acme of perfection. These two objects the designer of 
any kind of a plant should have continually before him. 
There are other points to consider as well, namely, that 
the plant is laid out so that each department or building 
can be enlarged to advantage, and that no buildings are 
in any way hemmed in so that they cannot be enlarged, 
to care for future growth. In some instances the growth 
may exceed the expectations of the builder and he may 
find himself unable to enlarge certain departments, to 
the great detriment of his business. 

INSURANCE. 

Another point in the line of economy is to make due 
provision in the design for the underwriters' require- 
ments. Building in such a manner as to bring the insur- 
ance rates to a minimum is certainly desirable. It is an 
advantage, too, to have the plant divided so that in case 
of fire the spread of the flames can be retarded and the 
fire confined to the building where it originated, or if 
some of the buildings are burned the balance can be 
saved. Fires invariably rei'jresent, to a well managed 
business, a far greater loss than is collectable on the 
insurance policies. 

PLAN FOE HOG SLAUGHTER HOUSE. 

The following plan (Fig. 7) gives the ground floor of 
a small, compact packing house, with a capacity for 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 31 

handling 800 to 1^000 hogs daily and also the by-prod- 
ncts. The main cold storage building, in which are 
located the hog coolers and three floors of cold storage, 
is 112 X 80 feet, with a hanging capacity of 2,300 hogs. In 
general practice it is found that five times the floor space 
required for a hog cooler is the space required for the 



SPACE FOR RAILROAD TRACK 



ENGINE ROOM 
-24-0 





BOILER ROJ)W 
24- 0- 



KILLING 8r TANK ■? io 

H0U5E ^ ^ 



3 FLOORfe COLD STORAGE 
TOP FLOOR HANGING ROOM 



•>— /G-O'-J' 



:A= 



:A=. 



HAM. 
LARa* SAUS A 

house: 







RAILROAD TRACK 



FIG. 7.— GROUND PLAN SMALL HOG KILLING PLANT. 

\ 

curing of the products, under ordinary conditions. If 
the product is to be sold promptly there may be excessive 
cold storage room, but if not, and it is held for any 
considerable length of time, this ratio will be found to 
be necessary. 

Directly south of the building described is another, 
which consists of three floors for cold storage, the top 
floor to be used as a hanging room for air-drying hogs 



32 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




.L- -idwi^ -'-illi^j-is^^jJ^ 



'^'^^ H\ V In, 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 33 

when desired, and for additional cooler space if needed, 
as one or two bays of tins top floor could easily be in- 
sulated if additional cooling space were required. Cold 
storage necessary for the lard or sausage room could 
also be provided in this building. It will be noted that 
there is a platform and a railroad track on the north 
side of the building for the convenience of car and wagon 
loading. There is also another platform located on the 
south side of the building. 

The next buildmg is the ham, lard and sausage house. 
This building is located very conveniently to the killing 
house for the lard, and to the pork house for the sausage 
trimmings and cured meats, the smoke houses being 
placed east of this house and at a sufficient distance to 
leave room for growth. This building should be the same 
height as the other buildings, giving ample room to 
handle the product from a plant of this si:^e. 

The killing and tank houses as shown are of ample 
capacity in which to handle all of the slaughtering re- 
quired. 

Next to the tank house is the boiler room, being very 
convenient for steam, the tank .house being the largest 
steam consuming department of the plant. Adjoining 
the tank house is the engine room for the ice machine 
and power plant, handy to the cold storage building for 
the circulation of the refrigerating medium. 

On the west is shown a temporary vestibule which 
may be of wooden construction if the dividing wall is 
run out 6 feet from Ihe line of the other walls. This 
vestibule should be put through on the top floor only, 
connecting the hog coolers, and consists of a balcony on 
the side of the building, with supporting brackets, which 
can, however, be put in on lower floors if desired. The 
growth of the two main buildings would naturally be 



34 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 35 

west; that for the lard refinery and tank house east; 
boiler and engine room being built sufficiently large in 
the first place to accommodate machinery for the full 
plant. 

Pig. 8 represents a cross section through lines A— B, 
showing the basement lowered three feet below ground 
level, which brings the killing house and tank house 
floors on a level, the tank house floor not being lowered. 
The tank house is of sufficient height so that the vats are 
high enough to draw the material directly upon the press 
carriage. In the same room are the fertilizer dryers, the 
finished product being either stored in this building or 
removed to a small wooden structure for that purpose. 
In some instances iron columns and iron girders are 
used, but are not considered as desirable from an insur- 
ance standpoint. In some cases what is known as slow 
burning construction is used, made by using 6 x 12 inch 
joists instead of 3 x 12 inch joists, spaced loractically 
twice as far apart as here given. Otherwise construction 
should be the same. 

Fig. 9 represents a cross section through lines C — D, 
This diagram shows the floors which should be used for 
cooler, brine chamber, cold storage, as well as the open 
air hanging floor. Space is left over the ceiling of the 
brine chamber between that and the roof to aid in pro- 
tecting the coolers from the sun's rays i in hot weather. 

Fig. 10 represents the fourth floor, showing arrange- 
ment of tracking, killing house, etc. It will be noted 
that the scalding tub Is so located that space is left for 
a scraping machine if in a house of this size it is deemed 
advisable to have one. Five tanks are shown convenient 
to the killing rails. The hogs, as fast as dressed, are 
run through the vestibule into the outside hanging room. 
In some climates this would be very desirable; in others. 



36 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



objectionable, hence it is a consideration that must be 
governed entirely by the location of the plant. After 
the hogs have hung as long as necessary in the outside 
hanging room, they are run through the west vestibule, 
around to the end of the wall into the cold storage rooms ; 
from the cold storage rooms they are run east to the 
cutting room. No attempt is made here to go into the 
details of the cutting room. Suffice it to say that the 
space as given (48 x 32 feet) would be ample for a cut- 




FIG. 10.— PLAN FOURTH FLOOR HOG KILLING PLANT, SHOWN IN FIG. 7. 



ting room of this capacity. The meats would go through 
chutes to the floor below, where they would be graded, 
sorted, etc.; sausage trimmings could go through the 
vestibule to the sausage room, all lard trimmings being 
convenient to the lard tanks. 

COST OF PLAXT. 

Cost is rather an uncertain quantity to arrive at, as 
the cost of labor and material vary so greatly at differ- 



CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 37 




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AVMNfld 31iiV0 




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38 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 39 

ent points. Figuring concrete at $5.50 per cubic yard 
and brick at $14:.00 per 1,000, in the wall; lumber at 
$24.00 per 1,000 feet and intelligent labor at from 
20 cents an hour for common labor to 45 cents an hour for 
skilled labor, this i^lant should be built, exclusive of the 
machinery (but all buildings ready for the installation 
of machinery), for $65,000.00. 

PLAiSr FOR SMALL SLAUGHTER HOUSE. 

In Figs. 11, 12 and 13 are shown plans for a small 
packing house with a capacity of 250 hogs and twenty- 



GROUND UNE 




o qqLD STORAGE 

T 



/r^-i6'-0 — /.tA- 16'- 0"-M--l6' -Q' - 7Vr -'6'- 0' --/A- 16' -0''-M- l6'-0"— A!\ 
i^ 46-0 —J— 48-0 -T"^ 



FIG. 13.— CROSS SECTION ON LINE C - D, FIG. 11, HOG AND CATTLE 
KILLING PLANT. 



five cattle per day. These plans contemplate wood con- 
struction throughout with a brick fire wall separating 
the tank house from the other buildings, while the brick 
smoke houses are^set apart from the rest of the build- 
ings, all with a view to reducing the fire risk to a mini- 
mum. 

On the north side of the plant is shown the railroad 
track and loading platform. At the extreme east end of 
track is the power plant; the next building west is the 



40 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



o CQ : 



.4- 



■,0:9/-- 



\C-9/- 







CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 41 

tank house, in wliicli are located the tanks, presses and 
dryer for handling of fertilizer. The next building is 
of two stories and a basement. The basement is used 
for the salting of hides, sheep pelts, storing of tallow, 
etc. First floor, slaughtering of sheep and cattle ; second 
floor, slaughtering of hogs, runways reaching both floors. 
Adjoining building on the west — basement and first 
floor, cold storage; second floor, hog coolers and pork 
cutting room. Adjoining building on the south — base- 
ment, cold storage; north bay, first floor, beef cooler, 
hanging capacity sixty cattle; balance of first floor used 
for lard refinery and sausage room; second floor, hang- 
ing room for hogs, storage and agitators for lard re- 
finery, the north bay being used for brine chamber and 
for beef cooler. 

It will be noted that with each one of these buildings 
allowance is made for growth or additions and that the 
whole forms a very compact small plant. 

Fig. 12 shows cross section A — B. Fig. 13 shows 
cross section C — D. 

Fig. 14 shows the second floor plans. The brick fire 
wall, cutting off the tank house; has a balcony leading 
around the end of it on which to truck material going to 
the tank house, thereby making unnecessary any openings 
through the fire wall itself. The hog cutting room is con- 
venient to the sausage room, as well as *to the tanks for 
lard products. The pork cuts are passed through an 
opening in the floor into the cold storage for curing 
purposes. 

The buildings for a plant of this kind, under ordinary 
conditions, should be erected for approximately $20,000. 
Cost of machinery for equipment would be additional, 
the amount being very hard to estimate in advance of 
exact requirements, which would depend more or less 



42 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 43 




44 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 45 



upon individual choice. A plant built on these lines 
could be operated very economically and satisfactorily. 

CATTLE, HOG AND SHEEP SLAUGHTEE HOUSE. 

Fig. 15 shows foundation plan for cattle, hog and 
sheep slaughter house, with coolers. This plant is de- 




FIG. 18.— CROSS SECTION C - D SLAUGHTER HOUSE, SAME AS 
SHOWN IN FIG. 15. 

signed for a commission slaughter house rather than a 
regular packing house, there not being sufficient cold 
storage to accommodate a regular packing business. The 
cattle-killing beds are on the second floor, the first floor 
being used for the handling and manipulating of the 
offal. The basement is used for hides. Sheep and hogs 



46 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 47 




48 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

to be killed outside of the main building in a one-story 
room built for the purpose. Dressed animals are raised 
on track elevator to cooling rooms. The killing house 
has eight beds; capacity, 700 cattle per day. Room for 
killing 1,000 hogs and 1,500 sheep daily is also provided. 

Fig. 16 is a diagram of the first floor, showing details 
of vestibule, etc. Fig. 17 shows cattle killing floor with 
killing beds, tracking, etc. Also tracking in cooler. 

In this plan the insulation is to consist of 2 x 6 inch 
studding against a brick wall with double course of in- 
sulating paper and 1-inch boards on outside of studding, 
the space between the studding and boards to be filled 
with dried sawdust. 

Fig. 18 represents a cross section, C — D, of slaughter 
house, showing detail of killing floors, hoists, etc. Fig. 
19, longitudinal section, A — B, showing outline of kill- 
ing floor, location of killing beds, and detail of vestibule. 

Fig. 20, longitudinal section, C — D, of cooler building, 
the basement to be used for the storage of hides, tallow 
or any product for which a partially chilled room is nec- 
essary. First floor to be used for salesroom or addi- 
tional beef cooler when needed. Second floor for beef 
coolers, with a hanging capacity of 800 cattle. Third 
floor, brine chambers. Fourth floor, open space suffi- 
ciently high to store dressed beef, sheep or hogs in cold 
weather if desired. 

No tank house or fertilizer is shown with these plans, 
as they are given more to show the dimensions and size 
necessary for volume of business named. The buildings 
herein mentioned should be built, under ordinary condi- 
tions, for $48,000. 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 49 



CHAPTER IL 
REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE. 

SYSTEMS OF REFEIGERATION". 

There are so many factors which enter into the ques- 
tion of packing house refrigeration, and so many details 
of construction and application of refrigerating appa- 
ratus, that it is almost impossible to cover this subject 
practically and intelligibly without devoting a separate 
and complete volume to refrigeration alone. The author 
would, therefore, recommend that the packer give time 
and attention to a careful investigation of the details of 
construction of the various refrigerating plants in use 
in the leading packing houses of this country", and par- 
ticularly to the application of refrigeration to the vari- 
ous processes of meat handling ; or, as a safer and more 
satisfactory alternative, to consult an independent re- 
frigerating expert, and have plans and specifications 
drawn up to cover every possible detail of refrigerating 
requirements, and secure propositions from the machine 
manufacturers, based on the plans and specifications 
submitted. There are a number of such experts avail- 
able, and their experience and knowledge of refrigera- 
tion will, in almost every instance, enable the packer to 
avoid pitfalls which his inexperience and necessarily im- 
perfect knowledge of refrigeration would lead him into. 

To give a fixed rule for packing house refrigeration, 
applicable to all conditions, would be impossible, as much 



50 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

depends upon conditions and surroundings, and the re- 
quirements would vary accordingly, as, for instance, at- 
mospheric conditions, cooling water temperature, con- 
struction of insulation, relative exposure to cubical con- 
tents of refrigerated space, average tonnage of product 
to be cooled, time limit for chilling, cooling and storage. 
These and many other factors affecting the general re- 
sults must be taken into consideration and provided 
for, and as these factors vary, so also will the refrigera- 
tion requirements vary accordingly. 

The theory of refrigeration is based on the heat ab- 
sorbed by the melting of one pound of ice at 32° F., 
to water at the same temperature (the latent heat of 
solidification of water to ice). In freezing one pound of 
water at 32° F., to ice at 32° F., 142.6 British thermal 
units of heat must be withdrawn from the water; for 
convenience in practice the fractional part is ignored, 
and 142 B. T. U. per pound of water is universally ac- 
cepted as a standard on which to compute refrigeration. 
On this basis, if 142 B. T. U. are withdrawn from each 
pound of water at 32° F. to convert the water into 
ice at the same temperature, the melting of the pound 
of ice at the same temperature must re-absorb the latent 
heat extracted or withdrawn in the process of freezing, 
consequently the melting of one ton (2,000 pounds) of 
ice to water at the same temperature would absorb 
2,000 X 142 B. T, U., or 284,000 B. T. U., which is the 
accepted standard for computing the heat absorbed in 
the performance of one ton of refrigeration. In ice melt- 
ing this absorption of heat is latent, not sensible to the 
thermometer, as no change is apparent by thermometer 
test in the temperature of the ice and the water, never- 
theless an appreciable cooling of surroundings is meas- 
urable by thermometer wherever ice melting takes place 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 51 

in an air-tight room,, or in contact with solid substances, 
or with liquids, having a higher initial temperature than 
32° F. 

Practice has demonstrated that one ton of refriger- 
ating effect for twenty-four hours will cool a space of 
from 7,000 to 12,000 cubic feet, depending upon condi- 
tions of exposure, insulation, temperature required, and 
other surroundings. This cooling would, however, 
merely provide against the continuous transmission of 
heat (or heat leakage) through insulation ranging from 
good to first-class in quality of construction, and would 
not provide for the cooling of meats, or other storage 
products, to be placed in the space, and the cooling of 
the stored products must be computed and added to the 
total of refrigeration required. 

In figuring for the refrigeration of freshly killed car- 
casses, for instance, or meat from which the animal heat 
has not been fully removed, it is customary to figure th*at 
one ton of refrigeration for twenty-four hours would be 
required for either one of the following items : 

From fifteen to twenty-two hogs, average weight 225 pounds. 
From five to six head of cattle, average weight, 700 pounds. 
About fifty-five calves, average weight, 80 pounds. 
From fifty to sixty-five sheep, average weight 60 pounds. 

Before the application of mechanical refrigeration 
to packing house purposes, all artificial refrigeration 
was accomplished by means of ice meltiAg alone, and at 
that time the packers computed ice melting requirements 
on a basis of cooling three pounds of meat from 80° F. 
to as low as the meat could be cooled b}' ice melting, for 
each pound of ice melted. While this rule undoubtedly 
was the result of practical experience with well con- 
structed coolers, and was in no wise based upon theo-* 
retical or heat unit formulas, yet it is interesting to note 
how close this old rule compares with modern formulas 



52 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

of computing refrigeration. For example, the cooling 
of 100 head of hogs, averaging 250 pounds dressed, by 
the packer's rule, would require — 

100x250 „ „„„ 

^ := 8,333 pounds, or 4.16 tons ice melting. 

And on a heat unit basis, cooling the same number and 
weight of hogs from 80° to 32° F. would require — 

^ 284^00 ~ =4.22 tons refrigeration. 

The above comparison shows that theory and practice 
approach very closely to a common line, although in the 
calculation the factor of specific heat of the meat is 
ignored, and in practice this may well be left out, as 
specific heat of meats at varying temperatures has by no 
means been accurately established. 

In lard cooling the rule of three to one appears to 
check up nearly or quite as close as for meat cooling, and 
may be taken as a safe basis for calculating refrigerat- 
ing requirements. 

For cold storage rooms, where meats which have al- 
ready been chilled or cooled are stored and held for a 
greater or lesser period, the refrigeration requirements 
are not so great as in chill and cooling rooms, as the 
animal heat has been removed and the meats cooled 
down to a low temperature, and consequently but little 
more refrigeration is required than that necessary to 
take care of the heat leakage through the insulation, and 
possibly the recooling of the meat through a range of a 
few degrees, when the meats may have gained a little 
in temperature in the cutting rooms. 

Where meat freezing is desired the refrigerating re- 
quirements are necessarily greater than for either chill- 
ing or cooling, and the surroundings must be adapted to 
the conditions of extra low temperature, by more perfect 
insulation and by extra pipe surface allowance, as well 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 53 

as extra refrigerating capacity, for it is much more dif- 
ficult to produce and maintain sharp freezing tempera- 
tures than either chilling or cooling temperatures. 

Pickle cooling requires consideration, as pickle should 
always be cooled down to within four degrees of the 
temperature of the meats before the meats are put into 
the pickle. 

All of the above factors must be considered in the 
calculations for refrigerating requirements, and it is best 
to make allowances for a considerable factor of safety 
over and above the actual maximum, as well for the eco- 
nomical operation of the plant (it never pays to crowd 
a plant to its limit of capacit}^) as to guard against emer- 
gencies and possible abnormal demand for refrigeration. 
The plant should be constructed as far as possible in 
duplicate, not only as regards the machinery but also in 
the apparatus, as a safeguard against accidents and total 
cessation of refrigeration. With two machines and 
duplicate apparatus one-half the maximum refrigeration 
is always available, and the preservation of the product 
in storage is assured, even if it be found necessary to 
stop killing for a sufficient period to make the repairs 
on the broken machinery and apparatus, while with one 
machine only available, a breakdown might result in 
very serious loss and considerable damage to the stored 
products. \ 

With regard to insulation, it may be said that the 
best is the most economical in the long run. There is no 
such thing as absolute insulation — some heat leakage 
must occur through the very best insulation, and the re- 
duction of this heat leakage to the minimum should be 
the chief object or factor for consideration. First-class 
insulation costs high in original investment, but as it 
creates a continuous saving and economy in refrigera- 



54 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tion, while poor insiilation creates a continuous waste 
of refrigeration through constant maximum heat leak- 
age, the best will always pay a good dividend on the in- 
vestment, while the poor will prove a constant drain in 
cost of refrigeration. First-class insulation should be, 
first, as nearly air-tight as possible; second, impervious 
to moisture; third, as near as possible fireproof; fourth, 
stable and permanent in character of construction, avoid- 
ing possibility of insulating fillers settling and leaving 
unfilled space (all fillers should be both light in weight 
and elastic in character), and fillers should never be 
of a character subject to decomposition or fermentation. 

Air circulation, particularly in chill rooms, should 
receive proper attention. Where freshly slaughtered 
meats, containing animal heat, are exposed to a cool 
temperature, rapid evaporation of moisture from the 
meat results, especially when the meats have first been 
washed with comparatively warm water, and this rapid 
evaporation produces heavy vapors, which, if not quickly 
removed from the chill rooms, will condense on the walls 
and ceilings, and eventually on the surface of the meats, 
when the animal heat has been withdrawn. 

This condensation on the surface of the. meats pro- 
duces a slimy appearance and lowers the quality of the 
product, as the vapors contain foul gases which promote 
decomposition, and also have in themselves a most dis- 
agreeable smell and taste. Chill rooms should, there- 
fore, be so constructed as to facilitate the removal of 
the vapors as rapidly as they are formed by the evapora- 
tion from the meats. 

This may best be accomplished b}^ constructing lofts 
or chambers above the chill rooms and connected to them, 
by means of warm air ducts leading from the highest 
point in the chill room to a level above the refrigerating 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 55 

surfaces located in the lofts or chambers, with cold air 
openings leading from the lowest level of the lofts or 
chambers to the chill rooms below. 

With such construction a difference of a few degrees 
in temperature between the refrigerated lofts or cham- 
bers and the warm meat in the chill rooms will produce a 
natural gravity circulation of the air in the latter. The 
heavier cold air will fall through the cold air open- 
ings down to the chill rooms, spreading entirely over 
the floor surface and below the warm meats, and grad- 
ually filling upward. On the other hand the warmer, 
vapor-laden air will pass upward through the warm air 
ducts to the highest level of the lofts or chambers, above 
the top of the refrigerating surfaces, and coming in con- 
tact with the cold surfaces of the refrigerators the con- 
tained moisture is condensed on these cold surfaces, 
leaving the air practically free from moisture and foul 
gases. This air thus purified and cooled and which has 
become more dense in cooling, will again fall downward 
by gravity, through the cold air openings to the floor line 
of the chill room, producing and maintaining a constant 
regular circulation by the force xof natural gravity alone, 
at the same time insuring a pure, dry air. 

Forced circulation is sometimes employed in connec- 
tion with chill rooms, but this means of air circulation is 
by no means as desirable or efficient ae natural gravity 
circulation. The fan circulation directs the air currents 
in straight lines, the currents are deflected by every ob- 
stacle which they encounter, and are thrown upward, 
downward or sidewise, in every case to the points of 
least resistance, consequently the moisture and foul gas 
thrown off by one carcass may be forced directly upon 
the surface of the next carcass, and there condensed to 
remain and contaminate the product. Again as fan cur- 



56 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

rents are deflected, one carcass may receive the direct 
effect of a cold current of air and the adjoining carcasses 
be protected from the cold current by its deflection 
through meeting with obstruction of the first carcass. 
In this manner uniformity of circulation is prevented, 
and there is no regularity of conditions of temperature 
and air currents, while with the natural gravity circula- 
tion the conditions, and consequent results, are uniform 
and regular throughout the rooms. 

Meat chilling must be done intelligently, opportunity 
must be afforded for the gradual withdrawal of the an- 
imal heat from the carcasses, without any stiffening or 
solidification of the outside surfaces. Too rapid chilling 
of meats containing animal heat results in hardening the 
outside surfaces, forming an insulation at the surface, 
and locking in the animal heat, which produces eventual 
souring of the product. The chilling process should be 
sufficiently graduated to permit of the absolute with- 
drawal of all animal heat before any attempt is made to 
attain low temperature chilling. The meats should never 
be subjected to sudden, contracting, low temperature ef- 
fects, but a gradual, regular, tempering effect should be 
attained, that will carry the meat through the range 
from blood heat down to the desired ultimate tempera- 
ture, without abnormal shocks in temperature gradua- 
tion. This effect can only be attained through scientific 
construction and operation of the chill rooms. 

A visit of inspection to the various packing plants 
throughout America will impress one with the fact 
of the existence of a wide variation of opinion and prac- 
tice with regard to the methods of applying refrigera- 
tion for packing house purposes ; not only does the size 
of pipe used vary materially, but a variation would also 
be found in both the system and the application; some 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 57 

plants being equipped with piping for direct ammonia 
expansion, with size of pipe varying from 1 inch to 2 
inches in diameter; others being equipped for brine cir- 
culation, with variation in pipe size from 1 to fi/o inch 
diameter; still others equipped for exposed brine circu- 
lation, with either trough or curtain arrangement. An 
equally varying practice seems to prevail with regard 
to the amount of surface adapted or required in various 
packing house rooms, particularly in reference to pipe 
surface, the chill rooms of one house being equipped with 
1 square foot of pipe surface for each 3 cubic feet of 
space to be cooled, while others may be found which 
contain an average of 12y2 cubic feet of chill room space 
for each square foot of pipe surface exposed. 

That there must be a variation in pipe surface re- 
quirements, based upon the varying conditions as to in- 
sulation, climatic influences, and other conditions or sur- 
roundings, the author will freely admit, but that such 
variation should be apparent under practically the same 
conditions cannot be other than the result of want of 
knowledge of the requirements, or of a misconception 
of the economies in refrigeration, and the packer may 
well give these matters mature consideration and study 
before jumping at, or being led into, an investment along 
these lines that may cause him both annoyance and 
expense. ^ 

Because of his long experience with the various ap- 
plications of refrigeration to packing house chill rooms 
the author feels warranted in expressing a preference 
for the system of exposed brine circulation, equipped 
with the curtain arrangement, patented by Mr. H. C. 
G-ardner, of Chicago. Fig. 21 represents this system as 
put in operation in one of the large plants in Chicago. 
It recommends itself for three reasons, first, economy of 



58 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 



59 



installation; second, perfect distribution of the brine, 
thereby insuring good results in the chill rooms, and 
third, the slight cost of maintenance. 

Another feature of this system which will commend 
itself to the engineer as well as the proprietor is the fact 




FIG. 22.— PLAN OF 



CURTAIN " SYSTEM OF REFRIGERATION SHOWING 
TROUGHS IN COOLER. 



that if at any time repairs are necessary in the expan- 
sion tank, one needs simply to close the return valve 
from the cooler and pump the entire contents directly 
into the bunker pans. Whenever it is necessary to do 
this it can be done very quickly, and it is often advisable 
to do it for the sake of getting the extra amount of re- 



60 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



frigerating forces into the cooler at once, when it is 
desired to shut down the plant for repairs or over holi- 
days or Sundays. 

CURTAIN SYSTEM OF REFRIGEEATION. 

For this system a refrigerator or curtain room is 
provided, directly above the meat coolers, and of same 
length and width, in which is fixed an open xDan or brine 




d'i=>:*. 



FIG. 23.— CROSS SECTION COOLER BUNKER 
OF REFRIGERATION. 



CURTAIN " SYSTEM 



distributing trough, located directly beneath the ceil- 
ing and fed with chilled brine by means of li/4-inch pipe. 
This distributing trough feeds twelve other troughs 
located immediately below the feed trough and running 
laterally (see Fig. 22) across the cooler, from each of 
which is suspended a cloth or curtain, extending from 
the lateral troughs to the floor, as shown in Fig. 23, which 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 61 

presents a cross section of cooler bunker. The brine fed 
into these lateral trouglis overflows through the saw- 
tooth front, trickling down over the cloths to the bunker 
pans below, thereby giving an excellent exposure of the 
cold brine to the warm air coming up from the meat 
cooler. The moisture, as well as the foreign gases in the 
air, readily condenses and is taken up in the flowing 
brine, thus returning a very dry and pure as well as 
chilled air to the coolers. The cloths suspended from 
the troughs are drawn out to an angle of about thirty 
degrees, so that all brine which overflows from the 
troughs comes in contact with the cloth and finds its way 
to the bottom of the bunker pan. The cloth should ex- 
tend 6 inches on either side beyond the ends of the dis- 
tributing pans, so that there is no possible chance for 
the brine to overflow and not come in contact with the 
cloth, for if it should fall directly to the bunker pan, it 
would cause a spatter and the spray would find its way 
down through the cold air chute to the beef or product 
below. 

It is very essential that there should be good insula- 
tion between the bottom of the' bunker pan and the top 
where the pan is exposed to the cold brine ; without this 
insulation moisture will condense on the under side of 
the pan, as it rises from the hot meat in the chill room 
below, causing a condensation on the ^hill room ceiling, 
and eventually the formation of mould, which would prove 
very detrimental to ,the quality of the meat in the chill 
room. 

Another feature that is always desirable is to have 
the bunker pans inclined so that there are no pockets or 
places to hold the warm air as it rises, or to prevent its 
free passage and access to the warm air ducts without 
meeting with any obstruction whatever, and so that the 



62 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

warm air will pass readily and rapidly up through the 
warm air ducts to the top of the refrigerator, where it 
will fall over the refrigerating surfaces. It may be 
noted in the illustration that the brine headers lie on the 
floor. The author believes that this is a great advantage 
over the former methods of having the brine header on 
the ceiling, as the condensation on the header forms an 
ever increasing accumulation of frost, which, if not re- 
moved, becomes so burdensome that the pipes are some- 
times broken down, causing damage and inconvenience. 
Pipes located as shown in this view are always spattered 
more or less from the falling brine, keeping the header 
entirely free from ice. The pipes rising from this header 
feed the main supply trough, which in turn feeds the 
twelve distributing pans and the cloths, as above indi- 
cated, the brine being discharged into a weir on the side 
of the pan. From this weir it runs into the main pan 
and finds its way through the different holes into the 
distributing pans. In each one of these holes an ad- 
justable nipple should be located, the one nearest the 
weir, or brine supply, being the highest, and each suc- 
ceeding nipple decreasing in height gradually toward 
the end of the pan, in this manner equalizing the flow of 
the brine into the distributing pans. The distributing 
pans are set diagonally so that the flow of the warm air 
toward the cold air duct necessarily brings the air in 
contact with the exposed brine flowing down over the 
cloth curtains, and it does not pass between the different 
curtains without being somewhat retarded, thereby giv- 
ing ample opportunity for the moisture in the air to be 
deposited on the refrigerated surfaces. 

In using the curtain system it is advisable to adopt 
galvanized iron pipes throughout. There being an ex- 
cessive accumulation of brine from the constant conden- 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 63 

sation of the moisture in the air, this accumulation, 
which would otherwise be lost, can be utilized (provided 
the brine is not colored by rusty pipe) by drawing off 
the excess brine from the sj^stem and boiling it, thereby 
purifying it, adding salt to bring it to the desired 
strength and using it for pickling purposes throughout 
the plant. It will therefore be seen that it is possible to 
overcome the objection that is often raised to the ex- 
posed brine system. 

In order to get the best results from this system it is 
necessary to have at least a 7-foot space in the brine 
chamber. Where old buildings are being remodeled and 
the required space is not available, probably the next 
best system is brine piping. When installing this kind 
of a refrigerating system, the author would suggest the 
use of galvanized spiral riveted pipes, 3 inches in diam- 
eter. These pipes will cost about the same per lineal 
foot as 114-inch black iron pipe; but having twice the 
area, only one-half as much of this pipe is required for 
the same refrigerating duty, hence the economy. The 
pipe is bought in lengths, generally of 10 feet each, and 
these are slipped together like stove pipe and soldered, 
putting on the number of lengths for the required length 
of the cooler. The brine header is connected into the 
bottom pipe through hose connections into each line of 
pipe, and finds its way into the return header from the 
top pipe. This pipe, being so thin, absorbs heat very 
rapidly. The life of this pipe is much longer than that 
of the 114-inch black iron pipe. A case came under the 
author's own observation where this pipe has been in 
use for upward of fourteen years, while the 114-inch 
iron pipe that was installed at the same time was com- 
pletely eaten out and replaced with the 3-incli galvanized 
spiral riveted pipe. The iron pipe lasted approximately 



64 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




REP^RIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 



65 



about eight years. Fig. 24 shows the end view of one 
bay with the pipe located and connected. Fig. 25 shows 
the end view of the cooler with the detail of the hangers 
on which the pipe rests. 

This same system is applicable to cold storage build- 
ings, where two pipes to each 16-foot bay is found ample 
to hold the temperature to from 36° to 40° F. for curing 
cellars; note refrigerating pipe in Fig. 24, hung to the 
ceiling of the room with wooden supports, the supports 




FIG. 25.— END VIEAV OF COOLER, SHOAVING DETAIL OF THE HANGERS 
ON WHICH PIPE RESTS, 



being so constructed that a drip pan can be hung directly 
under the pipes to prevent the drip frc^m falling upon 
the meats in process of curing, when the refrigerating 
agent is shut off. 

In brine pipe refrigeration for cattle the author would 
recommend to each 16-foot bay eight series of 3-inch 
galvanized spiral riveted pipes, with six pipes in each 
series, making a total of forty-eight pipes, for the fore- 
cooler, or the first cooler into which the cattle are run, 
and where the largest amount of refrigeration is needed 



66 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

to take up the animal heat. For the next, or second 
cooler, forty-two pipes, or seven series of six pipes each, 
are ample, for same sized room. It is always advisable 
in piping brine chambers for warm material to arrange 
them so as to have one or two sets of pipes from which 
the brine can be kept turned off, in order that the frost 
may melt off the pipes. In the cold storage buildings, 
such as curing cellars, etc., where there is good insula- 
tion, two 3-inch pipes will be found ample in each 16-foot 
bay, as above stated. In freezing rooms, where direct 
expansion is used, one lineal foot of 2-inch pipe to each 
5 cubic feet of space will be required to hold a proper 
temperature for sharp freezing. "Where brine circula- 
tion is used in freezing rooms, one lineal foot of 2-incli 
pipe to each 3 cubic feet of space to be held at freez- 
ing temperature is required. These suggestions will be 
found useful in ordinary packing house practice. 

The usual practice of construction for a refrigerator 
or beef cooler is a 16-foot construction each way, viz., 
bays of 16 feet and posts 16 feet centers. The height of 
chill room or coolers should be 11 feet 9 inches in the 
clear and for the curtain system, or exposed brine cir- 
culation, the lofts or chambers above the chill rooms 
vshould be 10 feet in the clear without considering the in- 
sulation of the bunker pans. 

It is sometimes preferable to use pipe for circulation 
of brine in the air cooler rather than the curtain system. 
Whenever pipes are to be used the use of 3-inch galvan- 
ized iron spiral riveted pipe, as described heretofore in 
this chapter, is strongly recommended, or where this is 
not readily obtainable 3-inch galvanized iron crimp- joint 
and soldered seam pipe may be substituted, which, while 
not quite so substantial as the spiral riveted pipe, will, 
with ordinarv care and attention, last a long time, and 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 67 

furthermore can be replaced at an extremely low cost. 
This galvanized pipe is recommended for the following 
reasons: First, for its economy, as it costs about the 
same per lineal foot as li/l-inch black iron pipe, but only 
requires about one-half as many feet. Second, for its 
lasting qualities, it lasting, as proved by experience, fully 
twice as long as the ordinary black iron pipe. This 
would hardly seem possible when first considered by 
anyone not having had the experience, and would natu- 
rally seem contrary to his judgment. To the author's 
personal knowledge there was installed in 1890 over 
100,000 lineal feet of this light galvanized pipe in a 
Chicago plant, all of which, if it has not been removed 
by alterations, is still in use with practically no expense 
connected with it for maintenance. Iron i)ipe which was 
put in at the same time was nearly all rusted out eight 
years afterwards. 

Samples of the galvanized pipe that had been in use 
for upward of ten years were found to have a very 
slight coating or deposit of rust on the inside of the pipe, 
less than ^V^-iiich thick, and adhering very tightly to 
the surface; by removing this rust with a sharp instru- 
ment it was found that the galvanizing was as clear and 
bright as when originally put on. Ten different pieces 
of this pipe 10 feet long were capped on either end and 
submitted to a hydrostatic pressure tetet; the bursting 
pressure average of the ten pieces was found to be 146 
pounds to the square inch, some of the samples standing 
a pressure of over 180 pounds to the square inch. In 
actual practice the pipe used for this purpose is never 
subjected to a pressure exceeding forty pounds to the 
square inch. 

The pipes are put together with rubber hose, using 
a three-ply cheap grade of hose for this purpose. (See 



68 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



Fig. 26 for detail of the end pipes with fittings for the 
iiose connections.) The pipes are usually furnished in 
10-foot lengths, riveted and soldered, and are slipped to- 
gether like an ordinary stove-pipe joint, all of these slip 
joints being carefully soldered, perfectly brine tight, and 
a sufficient number are slipped and soldered together 




RETURN CONNECT(ON. 



FIG. 26.— DETAIL OP END PIPES SHOWING THE DIFFERENT FITTINGS FOR 
HOSE CONNECTIONS. 



in this manner to make runs of the required length to 
suit the length of the pipe chamber. At the end of the 
runs one of the three hose connection fittings shown in 
Fig. 26 (viz.: feed connection, intermediate connection 
and return connection) is put on for the purpose of con- 
necting the runs together by means of the rubber hose. 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 69 

For making this hose connection a composition is used 
made according to the following formula: 

Stockholm tar 5 pounds 

Rosin 6 pounds 

Gutta percha chips 9 pounds 

The above is put over a fire and melted, and after it 
is all melted and mixed together and sufficiently cool to 
handle, it is taken in small handfuls and put into water 
to chill. It is then rolled into sticks and used in this 
form for the above-mentioned work. While a like mate- 
rial can be purchased, it is very much more expensive 
and does not do the work any better than the above prep- 
aration. 

This composition is put on the nipple of the fitting 
connection quite warm, the hose being slipped over at 
once and a wire clamp then put around the hose very 
tightly, when the connection is complete. On the top of 
the outlet of the return pipe an i/s-inch pet cock should 
be inserted, which can be opened when necessary in 
order to let out the air from the coils, as the coils will 
sometimes become air-bound, the air rising to the top of 
the coil and preventing a f recv circulation of the brine. 
If, however, the pet cock is opened, allowing the air to 
escape, the brine will circulate freely. In putting up 
this kind of pipe for brine service, it is very essential that 
the pipe should rest on wooden hangers or bearings ; if 
iron supports are put in, the pipe very soon rusts 
through at the point of contact with the support, and is 
ruined. However, if put up on wooden supports, as 
shown in Fig. 25, the life of the pipe will be greatly in- 
creased. 

In Fig. 27 is shown a very simple, inexpensive and 
effective method of supporting brine pipes in cold stor- 
age rooms, or in rooms used as curing cellars, etc. In 



70 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



these places it is always necessary to put some kind of 
a protection under the brine pipes, so that when the 
frost is melted off, the water therefrom will not drip 
down npon the meats. Many make the mistake of put- 
ting in galvanized iron drip pans, in which case the 
condensation of moisture on the bottom of the pans pro- 
duces as bad a result as the dripping from the pipes. 
In Fig. 27 is shown a dripboard trough which is nailed 
together in sections and slushed with tar on the inside. 




FIG. 



6LU.SHED WITH T^R 



-SIMPLE METHOD FOR SUPPORTING BRINE PIPES AND 
DRIP BOARD TROUGH. 



After the tar has had time to thoroughly chill and all the 
odor has evaporated, the trough can be taken into the 
warehouse in sections and nailed to the supports, slant- 
ing in the desired direction, and connected with a down- 
spout to a gutter, making a very economical as well as 
effective protection against the dripping of the pipes. 

In Fig. 28 is shown a type of cooler that is sometimes 
used, and those using it wonder why they cannot get 
good results. There may be the same amount of refrig- 



REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 



71 



eration applied in this coolei' as there is in one properly 
designed and built, but the one here illustrated is abso- 
lutely wrong in principle. The warm, moist air arising 
from the fresh meat put in a cooler of this kind naturally 
rises to the top of the room. Not meeting with any re- 
frigerant to remove the heat and moisture, the latter 



■,.S PIPES 60C 



J J 



FIG. 28.— TYPE OF COOLER ARRANGEMENT TO BE AVOIDED. 

condenses on the ceiling and on the sides or walls, thus 
making an ineffective and unsatisfactory cooler; and 
while it might work with a fair degree of satisfaction 
where the meats require but two days of chilling, and 
are then immediately sold, if that meat is subjected to 
any great change in temperature, it will quickly become 
mouldy and out of condition. This type of cooler should 
always be avoided. ^ 



72 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER III. 

CATTLE HANDLING, SLAUGHTERING AND 
CHILLING. 

HOW TO HANDLE CATTLE BEFORE SLAUGHTER. 

In this chapter practical detailed suggestions for the 
handling of cattle will be considered. Before animals 
are slaughtered the first essential point is to see to it 
that they are in condition to be slaughtered, namely, that 
they are not over-excited, fevered, out of condition, 
under fed, or, in other words, that they are as near their 
normal condition as possible. Cattle should be allowed 
to rest over night before they are slaughtered, if they 
have been driven or " carred " any distance; for if the 
animal is tired or excited it will not bleed properly when 
slaughtered, and if killed in this condition the meat has 
a red, fiery appearance and is generally unwholesome. 
It is a condition which the practical eye of the tradesman 
will take cognizance of very readily, and he will not be 
slow to use it to his advantage. Fig. 29 is a view of 
suitable resting pens at a Chicago packing house plant, 
After the animals have rested a sufficient length of time 
to be in normal condition they should be driven to the 
killing pens carefully, and without undue violence, such 
as striking them across the back, or with heavy sticks, 
or prodding them unnecessarily while in the pens, as 
this abuse shows on the meat very readily when the hide 
is removed. The damage thus inflicted by careless lian- 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



73 



dling is invariably done on the loin and rump of the 
animal, and as this is the high-priced part of the meat, 
it will readily be seen that the loss is quite considerable. 
With stubborn or wild cattle it is often necessary to 
be quite severe, but a practiced handler of live stock 
will do it in such a manner as to avoid injuring the car- 
cass at all. 




FIG. 29.— CATTLE RESTING IN PENS BEFORE BEING DRIVEN 
INTO SLAUGHTER HOUSE. 

In this connection attention is called to Fig. 30, 
illustrating a wooden knob for the end of a prod pole 
which will prevent a great deal of bruising and conse- 
quent discoloration of the meat. When penning cattle 
from overhead, the penner invariably prods the animal 
in the loin, oftentimes using his pole as a harpoon, the 
force of the blow thus inflicted, coming on so small a 



74 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



part of the back, invariably making a bloodshot spot, 
whereas, if the force of the blow were distributed over a 
portion three times that diameter no ill effect would be 
noticed, hence the use of the knobs on these poles will do 
away with the bruising of loins in handling and penning 



i 1 
1 1 


.\/2. J^ 


1 ■* 
1 1 


1 


1 






FIG. 30.— DIAGRAM FOR WOODEN KNOB ON END 
OF PROD POLE. 

cattle. Care should also be taken that the pens are not 
overcrowded, especially in hot weather. 



KNOCKING OR STUNNING CATTLE. 

This represents really the first act in the slaughtering 
of cattle. After they have been driven into the narrow 
pens provided for the purpose, as shown in Fig. 31, the 
knocker follows and with a four-pound hammer strikes 
tlie animal a stunning blow in the middle of the forehead. 

In former times cattle were speared, which was ac- 
complished by walking over the top of the runways and 
with a long, sharp-pointed spear, severing the spinal 
cord. This method of killing, however, had the effect of 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



75 



preventing the free bleeding of tlie animal and another 
bad feature was that the blood settled in the neck, neces- 
sitating trimming of each neck. This old method, how- 
ever, has now been superseded in all the large abattoirs 
of the United States by the method of knocking as shown 
in the view. 




FIG. 31.— VIEW ILLUSTRATING THE MODERN METHOD OP KNOCKING OR 
STUNNING CATTLE. 

Immediately after the stunning a sliding door is 
hoisted and the stunned, animal rolled out to be hoisted 
for sticking, heading, etc., as shown in Figs. 32 and 33. 



STICKING AND HEADING. 



In sticking great care should be taken that the throat 
is well opened, thereby giving the blood a free flowl Fiir- 



76 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



tiiermore, that the man who does the sticking severs botii 
arteries and veins otherwise the beef will purge on the 
back and look discolored when finished. He should also 
be careful not to stick cattle through, for if this is done, 
when the bullock is thrown on its back, the blood flows 




FIG. 32.— STUNNED CATTLE BEING HOISTED FOR STICKER. 



onto the chime bones, causing a bad discoloration. In 
heading, great care should be used to see that all the fat 
possible is left on the tongue, leaving it perfectly smooth 
on the outer surface. Also see that as little hide as pos- 
sible is left around the horns. Further, that the header, 
in cutting around the side of the head, leaves all the fat 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



77 



he can on the hide, and that he keeps as close to the side 
of the tongue as he can without injury to same; when 
this is done, the hide dropper can leave a full shaped 
neck, otherwise considerable weight which should be left 
on the beef comes onto the head, where it is afterward 




FIG. 33.— HEADING AND SKINNING CATTLE. 



trimmed and only worth tallow price. In taking the 
tongue from the head the trimmer should cut close to 
the jaw-bone, so that all the meat possible may be left on 
the tongue. 

For convenience in handling the carcasses on the 
beds, a pritch is used (shown in Fig. 34). This is sim- 



78 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ply an ordinary stick with a spike in one end and a fer- 
rule on the other, nsed to hold the animal when rolled 
on its back. Formerly pritches were made with spikes 
at both ends. At present there is no spike used on the 
end of the pritch coming in contact with the beef, as such 
spike often has the effect of puncturing the hide. The 
end of the pritch, which is to rest upon the floor without 



FIG. 34.— PRITCH TO SUPPORT ANIMAL WHEN TURNED ON BACK. 

slipping, should have a spike inserted. The other end, 
which is to support the carcass, should simply have a fer- 
rule of ly^-inch pipe, the end being roughened like a saw 
tooth, which is sufficient to prevent it from slipping and 
at the same time does not injure the hide. 

FOOT SKINNING. 

Foot skinning is the term applied to taking off the 
front feet. In doing this the workmen should cut around 
the hoofs closely so as to give all the weight possible to 
the hide. They should not open the hide any further 
back than is absolutely necessary to unjoint the feet, for, 
if the shank is uncovered more than necessary, it is likely 
to become bloody, and it is impossible to get it clean again, 
as the tissue becomes stained. They should also be care- 
ful to see that none of the cords from the front part of 
the shin-bone are left on the hide. The same men doing 
this work also raise the gullet. In doing this they must 
be careful to oj^en the neck straight from where the stick- 
er left off. They must also guard against cutting the 
weasand. Great care should also be taken that the gul- 
let is not raised too high with the knife when clearing, 
for if this is done, it allows the blood to run back on the 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



79 




80 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ribs, producing the same effect as if the bullock had been 
stuck through. 

KIPPING OPEN AND LEG BREAKING. 

In this particular operation, care should be exercised 
to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker 
left off, opening the breast and hide in the center the full 
length of the animal. Leg-breaking consists in taking 
off the hind feet. G-reat care should be used to uncover 
the gam only sufficiently to get at the joint, leaving the 
hide over balance of shank to protect it. If this is done 
it will be possible to get very much better shanks than if 
skinned too low. 

Care should be taken to see that all hide possible 
comes off around the feet, but that none of the cords are 
left on the hide. 

Part of a modern killing floor is illustrated in Fig. 35. 
Fully one-half of the work in slaughtering cattle is done 
while they are lying on the floor and the other half while 
they are hung upon the hoists, consequently it is feasible 
and economical to work double beds. Fig. 35 is a view 
representing the work as it is done in a modern double- 
bed house. On sixteen double beds 150 cattle can be han- 
dled per hour. 

FLOORING CATTLE. 

This work consists of rimming over and siding the 
bullock. The special object of this operation is to attain: 
First, a smooth hide without scores or cuts, and next, 
smooth work done on the bullock, which consists in sav- 
ing the fell very carefully tliroughout, clearing the rose 
on shoulder fully, also the saving of the fell back of the 
elbow and the forward shoulder. The latter part is a 
very particular point, as no fat is there, and if the fell 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 81 

is not left it shows black when coming from the cooler. 

BREAST SAWING AND CAUL PULLING. 

In sawing the breast, care should be taken to see that 
it is sawed in the center, holding saw at same angle as 
that at which the animal is lying, otherwise saw works 
from under side, and makes a very bad-looking brisket on 
one side of the beef. Care should also be taken to saw 
where marked, otherwise it will become necessary to trim 
off meat from the neck, if the right marks have not been 
followed. 

Caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy, 
cleanly condition, keeping same off the floor, and getting 




FIG. 36.— DOUBLE HOIST FOR LIFTING CATTLE FROM THE KILLING BEDS. 

it into the box, as this is the best part of the fat for the 
oil house. Care should also be taken not to cut or tear 
the intestines, and if so, that they are imi^ediately skew- 
ered up. 

For hoisting the killed animal either a double or sin- 
gle hoisting apparatus^ may be used. A double hoist is 
shown in Fig, 36, and a single hoist in Fig. 37. In the 
double hoist shown, size of paper friction is 12x12 inches j 
speed of shaft, 250 revolutions. Larger pulley 52 inches 
in diameter, with 10 x 18 inch drum. Smaller pulley, 40 
inches in diameter, 10 x 18 inch drum. The smaller pulley 



82 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



is used for hoisting the gates of the knocking pens when 
used on heading bed hoists, and is used for lowering cat- 
tle from the heading rail when used on cattle bed hoists. 




FIG. 37.— SINGLE BEEF HOIST. 



The single hoist is a type of the kind of apparatus gen- 
erally used in the smaller plants. 



FELL CUTTING. 



Fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the hind 
legs when animal is on the first hoist. The points to be 
carefully looked after in this work is to see that smooth 
work is done both on the hides and on the beef itself. 



BEEF SPREADERS. 



In slaughtering cattle it was formerly the custom to 
use an ordinary spreader as shown in Fig. 38, which 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



83 



spread all carcasses, large or small, a certain distance 
and kept them spread from the time they were hung un- 
til finished splitting. The spring beef spreader, illus- 




FIG. 38.— ORDINARY BEEF SPREADER. 



trated in Fig. 39, is a great improvement over this old 
spreader. When the cattle are first hung on this appli- 
ance the center piece is raised up, allowing the hooks to 




FTG. 39.— SPRING BEEF SPREADER. 



hang in a normal condition proportionate to the size of 
the animal which is hung on them. Hanging in this 
shape, the rumper is given a chance to do his work when 
the bullock is held hanging in a normal position and is not 



84 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

spread so far as to be wrinkled and pulled out of its nat- 
ural form. 

Tail sawing is also improved by the use of this ap- 
paratus. If the carcass is spread unnecessarily the bone 
will break before being sawed, leaving the bone on one 
side or the other of the carcass, not being sawed in the 
center as it should be. In splitting the loins, if the bul- 
lock is spread more than it should be, the bones part and 
break ahead of the chopper, instead of being split. With 
the spring spreader, however, the carcass hangs in a 
normal condition and is spread out regularly as the beef 
is parted. 

When splitting the chuck it is customary to pull down 
the lever between the two hooks, spreading it to its max- 
imum distance. It also holds the animal in that condi- 
tion while being hung over upon the rails with trolleys. 

RUMPING. 

This operation requires very skillful work, and calls 
for a great deal of attention. Points to be attained are : 
First, a smooth hide free from scores or cuts, and next, 
smooth work on the beef. Care must be used in this 
work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide 
on outside of the leg, in order that the fell-beater may do 
a good job. If the rumper is careless and breaks through 
the fell, it is impossible to curry this down smoothly. In 
working around the tail, great care must be taken not to 
get into the lean meat, especially on thin cattle, where 
there is comparatively little covering. 

FELL BEATING. 

If the floorman and rumper do their work properly^ 
it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating. 
These two workmen should be followed closely, however, 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 85 

to insure a smooth, even job. The fell-beaters should 
then use extra care to see that they do not tear through, 
and, in marking with the chopper, to mark in such a way 
that they tear back instead of catting off. 

GUTTING. 

The objects sought for in this particular work are: 
First, cleanliness, and next, to save the fat smooth and 
without tearing it around the edge-bones. The liver 
should be taken out smoothly without tearing, and thrown 
into the truck. Special care should be taken in opening 
kidneys, to open in the center without cutting tenderloin. 
Also be very careful to leave all tenderloin in the bul- 
lock, for, if any comes out with the ' ' pluck " it is wasted. 
The workmen should also be careful about cutting intes- 
tines or weasands. 

BACKING, 

The objects to be attained in this particular work, 
are : First, smooth hides, free from scores or cuts, at the 
same time leaving no fat on the hide, and next, particu- 
lar care should be taken in the work required in the drop- 
ping of the hide to see that the fat is not removed from 
the loins. 

TAIL SAWING. 

\ 
The point in this work is to see that the saw is abso- 
lutely in the center, and that the first bone is sawed cen- 
trally. Better work can doubtless be done by sawing the 
tail from the rear, " popping " it twice. 

SPLITTING, 

Great care should be exercised in this particular 
work, especially on western and ' ' hard-bone ' ' cattle. As 



86 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 87 

the house grinds and furnishes choppers, great care 
should be exercised to see that these are in the very best 
condition to do the work. The}^ should be ground as 
thin as possible and have them hold, and if the splitters 
do not break a chopper once in a while, it is evidence that 
these are not ground as thin as they should be, and, un- 
less they are, it is impossible to do good work in split- 
ting. The workmen should, however, have choppers 
ground different thicknesses for different boned cattle, 
and never use thin-ground choppers on cows or hard- 
boned steers. The men look out for this themselves, gen- 
erally speaking. They should split the bone down central- 
ly, the entire length of the carcass. Great care should be 
taken to see that they split the short fin-bone in the 
neck, thereby giving the neck-splitter a chance to start 
centrally with his work. Fig. 40 is a view in same house 
as indicated in Fig. 35, showing the cattle after having 
been split, hung on trolleys and run back ready to be fin- 
ished. It will be noted that the carcasses are now sep- 
arated into two pieces and are being thoroughly washed 
and scrubbed with fountain brushes to insure absolute 
cleanliness in every part. The fountain brush in general 
use is illustrated and described on page 89. 

CLEARING OUT AND HIDE DEOPPING. 

In clearing the shanks the workmen ^hould look care- 
fully to see that thej do not score the hide, or make any 
miscuts in the meat. They should also save the veins in 
the under side of forward shoulder, for when these are 
cut they continue to purge, making bad-looking shanks. 
In hide dropping care should be used to see that the work- 
men do not score or cut hides, make miscuts in the neck, 
or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide. They should 
also skin hides as low down as possible on the necks, 



88 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

which is regulated altogether by the manner in which 
the heading is done, as first described. 

NECK SPLITTIISTG. 

This should be done carefully, splitting the neck fair- 
ly in the center. The last bone, or " deacon " joint, in the 
neck should be broken centrally, in order to give equal 
weights and appearance to the beef. 

BRUISE TRIMMING. 

This is a very essential feature in the dressing of 
cattle, and one in which good judgment must be exer- 
cised. It is, therefore, very hard to lay down any set 
rules further than the following: The object of trim- 
ming bruises is to take off all blood accumulations, and 
at the same time leave all the fat possible on the hips, 
etc., to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough 
wiping. The great danger, generally speaking, is that 
they are trimmed too much and scrubbed too little. These 
are points which require very careful attention. 

SKIRT TRIMMING. 

Skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of the 
skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean 
meat. On western cattle and thin stock, the skirts should 
be trimmed high enough so that they will expose the lean 
meat, which gives a chance for all moisture which has 
gathered under the film to escape, making the beef dryer 
than if otherwise trimmed. 

BEEF WASHING. 

In the washing of beef the work should start at the 
hind legs, the step-ladder men being the first to use water 
on the beef after it is split. Next come the back washers 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 89 

and wipers; after these come the neck and rib washers, 
the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as 
they go along; The washers should be kept close up, 
handling the beef promptly, running it into the cooler as 
fast as it is dressed. 

A convenient apparatus for washing carcasses is the 
fountain brush, already referred to under the heading 
of " Splitting." It consists of an ordinary brush with 
a spray attachment on the front of it, as shown in Fig. 
41. To this is attached a hose which supplies hot water 
from the vat above. When the men are ready to scrub 
the beef a valve is turned on, the water gravitating 
through the hose to the meat. In wetting it continuously 



FIG. 41.— THE FOUNTAIN BRUSH, 

the blood or discoloration whichx may be gathered on the 
meat is rapidlj'^ taken off, leaving it in a bright, clean con- 
dition. The beef is then wiped with a cloth made of ten 
or twelve thicknesses of very coarse cheese cloth which 
rapidly absorbs the moisture. \ 

COOLERS. 

Beef should be run into the coolers just as fast as fin- 
ished. It is desirable to maintain the temperature in 
the preliminary or fore cooler at about 40° to 45° F., and 
it should not go above 50° F. These conditions can be 
controlled by the length of time beef is kept in the fore 
cooler, ordinarily, but in extremely hot weather, when 



90 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



there is lieavy killing, coolers are liable lo go as high as 
48° to 50° F. and it does not necessarily follow that there 
will be bad results, providing the coolers are at a tem- 
perature of 38° F. twelve hours after being filled. The 
following day after beef is killed, it is pushed along into 
the main coolers, leaving room for the day 's killing in the 




FIG. 42.— VIEW IN BEEF COOLER. 



rear. The temperature of main coolers should be from 
34° to 36° F. In extremely cold weather the tempera- 
tures are quite often lower than those, or in extremely 
hot weather somewhat higher, but those given are prefer- 
able and safe. 

The necks are trimmed in the coolers and great care 
should be taken not to cut off any more than is abso- 
lutely necessary to give the neck a neat, square appear- 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 91 

ance. An interior view of a i^ypical beef cooler in a Chi- 
cago packing house is shown in Fig. 42. 

CARE OF COOLERS. 

That it is necessary to keep coolers sweet and clean is 
self-evident from the conditions, and it is always advis- 
able to use a liberal amount of sawdust on the floors, so 
that the drippings from the meats may be rapidly ab- 
sorbed; the sawdust should be changed at least once a 
week, keeping the coolers sweet and clean. 

The workmen's clothes should never be allowed to 
hang around the coolers, nor anything else that in any 
way might litter them up. 

Doors where beef comes in and goes out should be 
washed daily, as they get more or less grease and blood 
on them, and if this is allowed to stand it will soon be- 
come sour and to an extent decomposed. 

In all packing house plants where a comparatively 
large volume of business is done there should be one man 
whose sole duty it is to look after the refrigerators. As 
soon as the filling of the coolers is begun he turns on a 
little brine, just enough to keep ,the temperature in the 
coolers at the desired point and not more than enough to 
keep them at that point. This is a matter which neces- 
sarily needs constant attention and care. When the cool- 
er is filled with warm meat and the dooij-s are shut it is 
his duty to turn on the refrigeration and see that the 
meat is brought down to the required temperature in the 
Inquired time. While" this man is attending to the re- 
frigeration of the coolers it is advisable to have the tem- 
perature taken by someone else at least every three hours, 
partly that the attendant may know that close tab is kept 
on his work and partly to serve as a record for the 
superintendent or owner. Such a record is a great pro- 



92 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

lection. From the above it is apparent that the position 
of the man attending to the refrigerators is one that 
should receive careful consideration, and in which only 
a man of intelligence, and one who is known to be reli- 
able, is placed. 

TEMPEEATURE IN COOLERS. 

This is a point that cannot be watched too closely, 
and lack of experience in this particular has been very 
expensive in many cases. 

When beef is run into the cooler, it should first be 
held in what is called the fore cooler (by some, the back 
cooler), which consists of one-third of the length of the 
cooler cut off by a partition. As fast as this cooler is 
filled the beef should be pushed through into the front 
or main cooler, but as they are left in the fore cooler for 
an hour or two, a chance is given for the quick evapora- 
tion of a very large amount of the moisture and animal 
heat that is left in the carcass. When killing choice cat- 
tle it is advisable to have the temperature of the fore 
cooler as near 45° F. as possible; above 48° F. is not 
detrimental. Heavy cattle, however, should hang at least 
18 inches apart in order that the cool air may circulate 
freely around the carcasses; lighter cattle can be hung 
much closer. 

When the cooler is being filled the refrigeration 
should be partly shut off in order to allow the tempera- 
ture to run up to 45° to 48° F. As soon as they have fin- 
ished filling the cooler the refrigeration should be turned 
on full force with a view to having the temperature 
brought down to 38° F, in twelve to fifteen hours after 
the cooler is shut up. Wliile it might be possible to bring 
it down in much less time it is not advisable; neither 
should it be longer than this. The reason for this is to 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 93 

avoid what is called " bone-sour " beef, which it is im- 
possible to prevent at all times, but 99 per cent of it can 
be avoided if handled in the coolers judiciously. The 
explanation for this particular trouble lies in the fact 
that when the animal is put into a cooler where it is 
cooled quickly it chills on the outside, which practically 
forms an insulation, holding the heat next to the bones. 
If the beef is in a cooler where the temperature is too 
high, decomposition starts in before the animal heat is 
all taken away. This particular trouble, '' bone-sour,'^ 
is always found, however, in the hip- joint and is due to 
the decomposition of the joint water. If some joint 
water is taken from a freshly killed animal and put in an 
open bottle and set in the sun for two hours, it will be 
found to be thoroughly decomposed and have an offen- 
sive odor, the chemical properties being such that decom- 
position sets in immediately when it is exposed to the 
air. As there is a large amount of this water in the hip- 
joint, failure to remove the animal heat quickly enough, 
or refrigerating too quickly so that the animal heat is re- 
tained, causes decomposition of the joint water to set in, 
hence the trouble. ^ 

A great deal of difficulty has been experienced in 
Australia and South America in trying to slaughter cat- 
tle and freeze them immediately. They were successful 
in freezing them but when the beef was thawed out ready 
for use it was found unfit to eat in many cases. The 
above will readily explain the conditions they complain 
of. If the beef was thoroughly chilled for forty-eight 
hours before freezing they would have no trouble with 
bone-sour or '^ bone-stink " as it is sometimes termed. 

As stated before, the coolers should be brought to a 
temperature of 38° F. in twelve hours after they are filled, 
and from that point be brought down gradually to 34° or 



94 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

35° F., never allowing the temperature to drop to 32° 
F., as this is too low a temperature for shipping pur- 
poses. It is true that in extremely cold weather it can- 
not always be avoided, and oftentimes in transit it gets 
much lower than that in the cars, but it is not well to 
permit beef to reach that temperature if it can be 
avoided. If coolers are properly handled and have a 
good dry circulation, and beef is put in at the above tem- 
perature and allowed to remain forty-eight to seventy- 
two hours, it will be found to be in excellent condition 
and the chances of '^ bone-sour " will be practically elim- 
inated, although it is impossible to always prevent it; 
but, as stated above, the proportionate amount affected 
should be small — less than 1 per cent. 

All export beef which is shipped to England is han- 
dled in accordance with these instructions, and the fact 
that it arrives there in good condition certainly corrob- 
orates the correctness of the statement. 

Beef should always be run into the cooler immedi- 
ately after it is killed and never allowed to hang out- 
side any longer than necessary. "While it may take a 
little more refrigeration to handle it this way than to 
have it partially chilled by the outside air, the general 
appearance of the beef will more than repay for the 
additional cost of refrigeration 

EFFECT OF COOLERS IIST PRESERVIiSTG MEATS. 

Decomposition of meats is only |)ossible where there 
is moisture: For instance, in the mountainous regions 
of the west, where it is extremely dry and the air is 
pure, beef can be hung up out of doors and dried as hard 
as though house-dried. This is on account of the ex- 
treme dryness of the atmosphere. Meat at the sea level, 
however, where the air contains a large amount of hu- 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 95 

midity, will quickly decompose, showing that the moist- 
ure aids decomposition. Such being the case it will be 
readily seen that the cooler giving the best results must 
necessarily be the one which is the dryest and if the 
moisture which arises from the beef on account of being- 
run into a low temperature is immediately taken up and 
carried away, the meat will necessarily become dry. If, 
however, it is a cooler which is damp, and the moisture 
instead of being carried off is simply deposited, it will 
dry the beef only so long as the air, or cooler, is in a 
condition to take up moisture. When it will take no 
further moisture the balance remains in the meats and 
as soon as this meat, which is not thoroughly dried in 
the coolers, is exposed to the air it becomes slippery and 
slimy and is at once considered out of condition, hence 
the appearance of the meat long after it has left the 
cooler is attributable to the treatment it received when 
first slaughtered and put in the cooler. 

SUGGESTIONS FOE HANDLING BEEF IN COOLERS. 

When the beef is ready to go into the coolers it is 
supposedly well dressed and at)solutely clean. Such 
being the case, care should be taken to see that the car- 
casses, as they are moved along the rails, are kept bone 
to bone, or back to back, for if they are thrown in pro- 
miscuously (as more or less blood will run out of the kid- 
neys if run together, one front against another back of 
beef) they will certainly become discolored. Further- 
more, the beef should be handled as speedily and with as 
little yanking and throwing around as possible, as the 
veins when handled this way will purge more or less and 
the beef, even though clean, will be highly colored. 

The carcasses should be placed at least a foot apart ^ 

in the preliminary or fore cooler where they are al- 



9(j THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Jowed to stand until partially chilled, and then run into 
the main cooler, where the temperature is somewhat low- 
er. They should be placed so that under no condition 
one side of beef touches another, for if put in this way it 
always shows an unchilled and scalded spot on the beef, 
which greatly disfigures it. 

Beef should always, if possible, be hung a foot apart 
the first twenty-four hours; later it can be hung closer 
without detriment, although it should not be allowed to 
touch. 

After beef has hung in the proper temperature for 
forty-eight hours it is ready to be ribbed. It should not 
be ribbed prior to that time, unless absolutely necessary, 
as it has not sufficiently set or hardened, and hence the 
outer layers of beef will slip and give the beef a bad 
appearance. 

Beef can be held in coolers for months before it will 
decompose if the temperature is kept near 33° or 34° F., 
but of course in actual practice it is never necessary 
to keep it in to exceed four or five, or at the outside six 
days before it is taken from the cooler and started on 
its way to destination. 

Meat which is intended for freezing purposes should 
be thoroughly chilled before being sent to the freezers, 
as it not only aids in the freezing of the beef, but it has 
a much better appearance when it comes from the freezer 
if it is properly chilled before being frozen. 

TRIMMING OF BEEF. 

While this is an item of which little can be said, it 
is one which merits consideration where one is doing 
a large volume of business. Nearly all butchers will 
trim the necks of cattle before they are sent out in order 
to make them look smooth and even, trimming oif the 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 97 

ragged, jagged ends. On large cattle there are two or 
three pounds of brisket fat in each animal. When oleo 
oil is high and beef is low it is advisable to cut this fat 
out; when the conditions are different it is profitable to 
leave it in. 

On export beef it is advisable to trim out at least part 
of the skirts and in some cases all of them, as usually the 
skirt in the beef is the first place where moisture will 
accumulate. If the skirt is removed entirely, this accu- 
mulation is prevented, and if it is left in the English 
buyer invariably tests the condition of the beef by run- 
ning his hands along the skirt to see if it is mouldy. 

Hanging tenderloin is supposed to be cut out on ex- 
port beef, and if the man cutting it out cuts it from the 
kidneys, slanting toward the backbone, on a hundred 
cattle he can easily leave in quite an amount of weight 
which sells at beef price; if cut out it would be worth 
only sausage price. 

These are points and suggestions which are well 
worth consideration. 

ElBBIlSrG OF BEEF. 

Probably no other work about the packing house is 
more important, or needs more attention, than ribbing 
of beef. If the beef is ribbed properly it shows up to 
the best advantage; if improperly ribbed it does not, 
and the buyer's opinion of its value depends largely upon 
its appearance. Eibbing shows the quality of the beef 
to a large extent, hence it is very essential that it should 
be done properly. The secret of ribbing is to follow 
close, without uncovering the top part of the lower rib 
on the plate, following down gradually between the two 
ribs to the point in the backbone where the vertebra is 
the thinnest, bringing the knife across perfectly level, 



98 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

the object being to show as much meat as possible when 
the beef is ribbed and as little backbone. The exact 
place to go probably is not to exceed ^2 i^ich wide, hence 
it will be seen that it requires skilled work to do it rap- 
idly and do it properly. 

LOADING BEEF. 

In common practice about the packing house there is 
a certain department which requires a great deal of at- 
tention, not only to see that the work is done properly 
but to see that the conditions existing are favorable; 
namely, the loading and shipping department. For in- 
stance, the cars must be properly iced prior to loading 
and the temperature in the cars brought down to the 
right point. It is generally customary to ice the cars 
one day before loading, as a car should never be loaded 
that is not 38° F. or lower when the doors are opened. 
In the loading, if it is a warm day, the temperature will 
creep up much higher, but the beef coming out of a tem- 
perature of 34° or 35° F. carries a great deal of cold 
with it, so to speak, and even though the cars may be 
50° to 60° F. the refrigeration given off by the beef, 
combined with the refrigeration from the ice compart- 
ments of the car, will bring the temperature down very 
rapidly. Cars, of course, should be all thoroughly 
cleaned and aired out prior to the icing, so that when 
they are open they are perfectly sweet and clean as well 
as of the proper temperature. Beef should be put into 
the cars as fast as it comes from tlie coolers, not allow- 
ing it to hang on the rails and be exposed more than is 
absolutely necessary before being placed in the refrig- 
erator car. Great care should be used in hanging the 
beef — that it is hung perfectly solid and wedged in 
tight, otherwise with the swing and motion of the car 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



99 



the beef will become chafed and a bone from one quarter 
of meat will mangle and tear the meat on the quarter 




FIG. 43.— LOADING INTO REFRIGERATOR CAR. 

hanging next to it, often very seriously injuring its ap- 
pearance. Fig, 43 illustrates a typical beef loading scene 
at a large American packing plant. 

WEIGHING AND TAGGING BY LOTS. 

In order to keep a close watch on the business and 
to know exactly what each and every purchase realizes 
it is necessary to keep an account of each purchase sep- 
arately, and this is invariably done in up-to-date estab- 
lishments. Cattle are killed in lots in which they are 



100 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Ijurcliased, whether there be one or 500 in the lot ; every- 
thing in a particular purchase is kept absolutely sep- 
arate, the weight of the beef, hide and tallow being kept 
separate and turned into the office in the evening as soon 
as through with killing. Night clerks usually figure these 
tests, as against the cost of the live cattle, and when the 
day force comes on in the morning, the actual cost of all 
the live stock killed the day previous is before them for 
their guidance in the day's shipments. As fast as the 
cattle are dressed the beef is run over a track scale 
going to the cooler. Here the weight of each individual 
carcass is caught and tagged, showing the lot to which 
it belongs for guidance in shipping, the tag also having 
the grading of the particular carcass. Any lot of cattle 
will run uneven, or in other words there are some that 
are better than others. As they go to the scale an ex- 
perienced man looks them over and grades them as No. 
1, No. 2 or No. 3, considering only this particular lot of- 
cattle, as a No. 2 of one lot may be much better than a 
No. 1 of another lot; but they are graded by taking into 
consideration the whole of this particular bunch of cat- 
tle, as purchased. They are graded according to weights 
and quality. Any cattle that are badly bruised or dam- 
aged or discolored are thrown out and sent to some other 
department where they are cut up and trimmed out, or 
treated to the best advantage possible. As fast as the 
cattle are graded and tagged they are put into the cooler, 
each siDecial grade going on a rail by itself, irrespective 
of the lot to which it belongs, so that when the shipping 
clerk in the office gives his orders to the loading gang to 
have the beef taken out of the coolers, he will order so 
many No. 1 cattle off such and such a rail, lot, etc. As 
all cattle of that particular grade are on this rail it 
greatly facilitates getting the beef out of the cooler and 



CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 101 

avoids running around promiscuously to get the particu- 
lar carcass wanted. A great deal depends, in the expense 
of loading as well as the speed at which it is possible to 
be done, upon having the beef put into the cooler in such 
a way that it comes out readil)^ and without a great deal 
of handling and overhauling to get odd cattle. 



102 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER IV. 
DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE. 

TESTS SHOWIiSTG YIELD OF MEATS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Tlie following are carefully prepared calculations 
made from data obtained in practical operation, showing 
yields of the different products on several different 
bunches of cattle slaughtered. The reader will readily 
see that these were choice cattle in each instance and 
that the average yield of the products is generally larger 
than would be the case with the ordinary run of cattle 
slaughtered. A careful perusal of the different tests 
given in the following pages, however, will give the reader 
the average yield in different lines from the cattle han- 
dled, together with the value of the different items at 
time tests were made. 

YIELD OF A BUNCH OF TWEISTTY-TWO NATIVE CATTLE. 

The following tables show the yield in beef, hides and 
tallow and the value of offal of twenty-two native cattle, 
the first one in each test showing the weight and percent- 
age of yield of beef, hides and tallow : 



Product 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Averages 


Weight, lbs. 


Per cent 


Live weight . . 
Dressed " 


23,700 

14,239 

14,162 

1,755 

1,391 


Average 


1,077.00 
646.00 

63.25 






60.08 


Shipping " 
Hides " .. 


Shrinkage 

Average 


0.54 
7.40 


Total fat " .. 


Average per head 


5.80 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



103 



The following table shows the yield in trimmings 
of twenty-two native cattle: 



Product 


Pounds 


Value 


Total Value 


22 tong'ues 


149 
248 
56 
40 
88 
16 
7 
11 


$0.55 each 
.35 
.07 

.03K " 
.03 per lb. 
.03 
.03 
.03 ^ " 


$12.10 


22 livers 


7.70 


22 hearts 


1.54 


22 tails 

Cheek meat 


.77 , 
2.64 . 


Head meat 


.48 


Fine meat 


.21 


Head trimming's . 


.33 






Total value ... ... 






$25.77 









The following table shows the yield in casings of 
twenty-two native cattle : 



Produ(;t 


Per cent 
used 


Value 


Total Value 


20 sets round guts 

8 sets middles 


91 
36 
100 
91 
86 
36 


$0.14 set 
.50 

.1] each 
• OlJi " 
.05 per pee. 
.30 perdoz. 
.01 per lb. 


$2.80 
4.00 


22 pes. bungs 

20 pes. bung gut skins .... 

19 pes. weasands 

8 pes. bladders ... 

14 lbs. weasand meat 


2.42 
!25 
.95 
.22 

.14 


Total value 






$10.78 





The yield in sweetbreads of twenty-two native cattle 
was twenty-two pieces, weighing 6 pounds, valued at 
20c per pound, total value, $1.20. The yield in tripe was 
twenty-two pieces, weighing -4-20 pounds^ valued at i/oc 
per pound, total value, $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads 
and green tripe, $3.30. 

The yield in the tank room of twenty-two native cattle 
was 1,675 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per 
head being 76.14 pounds. 

In figuring the value of the offal in the different tests 
the materials sent to the tank room are not taken into 
consideration. 



104 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The following table shows the yield in heads and feet 
of twentv-two native cattle: 



Product 


Total 
Wt. lbs. 


Wt. per 
head, lbs. 


Price 


Amount 


Value 
per head 


Skulls 


88 


4.00 


glS.OO per ton. 


^0.79 


$0.03.590 


Jaws 


43 
63 


1.95 
2.86 


18.00 
18.00 


.39 
.56 


01772 


Knuckles 


.02545 


Dark hoofs .... 


39 


1.77 


22.00 


.43 


.01954 


No. 1 r"nd shins 


26 


.1.18 


42.00 


.54 


.02454 


Flat shins 


19 


.86 


30.00 " 


.29 


.01318 


No. 1 tallow . . . 


145 


6.59 


.06% per lb. 


9.78 


.44454 


Neatsfoot oil. . 


23 


1.05 


.64 per g-al. 


1.93 


.08773 


Tankage 


110 


5.00 


16.00 per ton 


.88 


.04000 


Total 








^15.59 


$0.70860 







The yield in blood of the above twenty-two native cat- 
tle was as follows : 8 pounds per head of dry blood ; 
total, 176 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, 
equals $2.90. 

The yield in sinews of the above twenty-two native 
cattle was as follows : 1.93 pounds per head ; total 
weight, 42 pounds; value, at the rate of $19.00 per ton, 
equals 40c. 

The fat from these twenty-two native cattle showed 
the following yield in stock: 



1,391 lbs. tallow 



( 1,122 lbs. No. 1 stock = 80.00 per cent. 
= -I 193 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.88 " 
76 lbs. waste =5.46 " 



} 



100.00 per cent. 



The above 1,122 pounds of stock showed the following 
yield in oleo oil and stearine : 



Product 


Per cent 


Weight, lbs. 


Price per lb. 


Value 


No. 1 oil 


79.77 
19.52 

.71 


895 

219 

8 


|;o.ioi.< 

.13j^ 


$94.37 


No. 1 stearine 

"Waste in pres^ng. . . . 


29.56 


Totals 


100.00 


1,122 




$123.93 







DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



105 



The total value of the otTal of twenty-two native 
cattle, including the tallow, was $182.67, an average per 
head of $8.30. 

YIELD OF A BUNCH OF FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE. 

The following table shows tlie yield in beef, hides and 
tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine fed Texas 
cattle : 



Product 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Averages 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Per cent 


Live weight 

Dressed .weight. . . 
Shipping weight. . 

Total fat 

Hides , . 


64,260 

39,609 

39,365 

3,896 

4,946 


Average 

Shrinkage .... 
Average per head 


1080. 
671. 

66.03 
83.92 


61.64 

.63 

6.00 

7.70 



The following table shows the yield in trimmings of 
fifty-nine Texas cattle: 



Product 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Value 


Total value 


59 tongues 

59 livers 

59 hearts 


418 
744 
160 

88 
227 

37 

18 V 

24 


^0.55 each 
.35 " 
.07 " 
.03>^ " 
.03 per lb. 
.03 
.03 
.03 


$32.45 

20.65 

4.13 


59 taiJs 


2.06 


Cheek meat 


6.81 


Head meat, 


1.01 


Fine meat 

Head trimmings 


.54 

.72 






Total value 






$68.37 









The following table shows the yield in casings of fifty 
nine Texas cattle : 



Product 


Per cent 
used 


Value 


Total 
value 


52 sets round guts 

20 sets middles 

59 pes. bungs 

46 pes. bung gut skins 

50 pes. weasands 

43 pes. bladders 

24 lbs. weasand meat 


88 
34 
100 
78 
85 
73 


i0.14 per set 
.50 

.11 per pee. 
.OlJi 
.05 

.30 per doz. 
.01 per lb. 


$ 7.28 

10.00 

6.49 

.57 

2.50 

1.07 

.24 


Total value 






$28.15 









106 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The yield in sweetbreads of fifty-nine Texas cattle 
was as follows : 59 pieces, weighing 20 pounds, valued at 
20c per pound; total value, $4. The yield in tripe was 
59 pieces, weighing 1,080 pounds, valued at %c per 
pound; total value, $5.40. Total value of sweetbreads 
and green tripe, $9.40. 

The yield in the tank room of fifty-nine Texas cattle 
was as follows : 4,466 pounds green weight to tanks, the 
average per head being 75.70 pounds. 

The following table shows the yield in heads and feet 
of fifty-nine Texas cattle : 



Product 


Total 

Wt. lbs. 


Wt. per 
head lbs 


Prict 


Amount 


Value 
per head 


Skulls 

Jaws 


247 

130 

161 

112 

73 

61 

43 

527 

57 

55 

215 


4.19 

2.20 

2.73 

1.90 

1.24 

1.04 

.73 

8.93 

.97 

.93 

3.64 


$18.00 per ton 

18.00 

18.00 

22.00 

20.00 " 

42.00 

30.00 

.06% per lb. 
200.00 per ton 
.64 per gal. 

16.00 per ton 


$ 2.22 
l!l7 
1.49 
1.23 

.73 
1.28 

.65 

35.56 

5.70 

4.69 

1.72 


$0.0377 
.0198 


Knuckles 

Dark hoofs 

Piths 


.0245 
.0189 
.0124 


No. 1 r'nd shins. 

Flat shins 

No. 1 tallow .... 
No. 1 horns. . . . . 
Neatsfoot oil ... . 
Tankage 


.0218 
.0109 
.6027 
.0970 
.0793 
.0291 


Total amount 








$56.44 


$0.9566 









The yield in blood of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as 
follows: 8 pounds per head of dry blood; total 472 
pounds ; value, at the rate of $33 per ton, equals $7.78. 

The yield in sinews of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as 
follows : 1.87 pounds per head ; total weight 110 pounds ; 
value, at the rate of $19 per ton, equals $1.04. 

The fat from the fifty-nine Texas cattle showed the 
following yield in stock : 



3,896 lbs. tallow = 



3,169 lbs. No. 1 stock == 81.34 per cent. 
539 lbs. scrap tallow =13.84 " 
188 lbs. waste =4.82 " 



100.00 per cent. 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



107 



The above 3,169 pounds of stock showed the following 
yield in oleo oil and stearine : 



Product 


Per cent 


Weight, lbs. 


Price per lb. 


Value 


No. 1 oil 


80.75 

18.49 

.76 


2,559 

586 

24 


SO. 11 
.13K 


$381.49 
79.11 


No. 1 stearine 

Waste in pressing. . . . 


Totals 


100.00 


3,169 




$360.60 



The total value of the offal of fifty-nine Texas cattle, 
including tallow, was $531.78; average per head, $9,103. 

YIELD OF A BU;NrCH OF TWEKTY CATTLE ( EIGHT NATIVE 
HIDES AND TWELVE " SPKEADIES ") . 

The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and 
tallow, and the value of offal, of twenty cattle, eight hides 
classified as natives and twelve as spreadies: 



Product 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Averages 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Per cent 


Live weight 

Dressed " 

Shipping " 

Hides " (eight 
natives and twelve 
spreadies) 

Total fat 


34,650 
15,894 
14,914 

1,731 

1,553 


Average 


1,233 

758 

86.5 
77.6 




Shrinkage 

Average per head 


61.64 
1.84 

7.10 
6.20 



The following table shows the yield in trimmings of 
same twenty cattle: 



Product 


Pounds 


Value 


Total 
Value 


30 tongues > . . . 

30 livers 


173 
361 
64 
33 
95 
16 
10 
15 


$0.55 each 
.30 
.07 

.03>^ " 
.03 per lb. 
.03 
.03 
.03 


$11.00 
7.00 


30 hearts 


1.40 


30 tails 


.70 


Cheek meat 

Head meat 


3.85 
.48 


Fine meat 


.30 


Head trimmings 


.45 






Total value 






$34.18 









108 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The following table shows the yield in casings of same 
twenty cattle : 



Product 


Per cent 
used 


Value 


Total 
Value 


19 sets i-oiinds 

7 sets middles 


95 
35 
100 
75 
40 
45 


$0.14 per set 
.50 
.11 each 

•OlX " 

.05 

.30 perdoz. 

.01 per lb. 


$2.66 
3.50 


20 pes. bung's 


2. 20 


15 " bung- gut slcins . . 

8 " weasands 

9 " bladders 


.19 
.40 
02 


11 lbs. weasand meat 


.11 


Total value 






$9.28 









The yield in sweetbreads of above twenty cattle was 
as follows: 20 pieces weighing 7 pounds, valued at 20c 
per pound; total value $1.40. The yield in tripe was 
20 pieces weighing 420 pounds valued at y^c per pound; 
total value $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green 
tripe, $3.50. 

The yield in the tank room of above twenty cattle was 
1,626 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head 
being 81.3 pounds. 

The following table shows the yield in heads and feet 
of same twenty cattle: 



Product 


Total 

wt., lbs 


Wt. per 
head, 

lbs. 


Price 


Amount 


Value 
per head 


Skulls 


84 
46 
69 
43 
25 
20 
165 
32 
72 


4.20 
2.30 
3.45 
2.15 
1.25 
1.00 
8.25 
1.60 
3.60 


$18.00 per ton 
18.00 " ■ 
18.00 
22.00 

42.00 " 
30.00 

.Oe^/ per lb. 

.64 per gal. 
16.00 per ton 


$0.75 
.41 
,62 
.47 
.53 
.30 
11.13 
2.72 
'.58 


$0.0375 
.0205 


Knuckles 

Hoofs . 

No. 1 r'nd shins 

Flat shins 

No. 1 tallow. . . 
Neatsfoot oil. . 
Tankage 


.0310 

.0235 

.0245 

.0150" 

.5568 

.1360 

.0290 


Totals 








$17.52 


$0.8760 









The yield in blood of same twenty cattle was as fol- 
lows: 8.35 pounds per head of dry blood; total 167 
pounds ; value at the rate of $33 ]3er ton, equals $2.75. 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



109 



The yield in sinews of same twenty cattle was as fol- 
lows : 2 pounds per head, total weight 40 pounds ; value 
at the rate of $19 per ton, equals 38c. 

The fat from these same twenty cattle showed the 
following yield in stock : 

( 1,265 lbs. No. 1 stock = 81.51 per cent. 
1,553 lbs. tallow = -! 215 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.85 

73 lbs. waste =4.64 " 



100.00 per cent. 




FIG. 44.— SIRLOIN BUTT. 



The above 1,265 ]30unds of stock showed the following 
yield in oleo oil and stearine : 



Product 


Per cent 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Price 
per lb. 


Value 


No. 1 oil 


79.37 

30.08 

.55 


1,004 
354 


$0.11 
.14 


$110.44 


No. 1 stearine 

Waste in pressing 


35.56 


Totals 


100.00 


1,358 




$146.00 



110 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The total value of the offal of above twenty cattle, in- 
cluding the tallow, was $203.61, an average per head of 
$10.1805. 

^^--" YIELD or A BUNCH OF THIKTY-FOUK CATTLE. 

The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and 
tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four cattle : 



Product 


Weight, lbs. 


Averages 


Weight, lbs. 


Per cent 


Live weight 

Dressed " 

Shipping " 

Hides " 


43.350 

25,563 

25,067 

3,027 

2,666 


Average 

Shrinkage .... 


1359 
751 

" 89!00 
78.41 


60.36 
1.98 
7.10 


Total fat 


Fat per head 


6.30 




FIG. 4.5.— SIRLOIN STRIP. 



The following table shows the yield in trimmings of 
same thirty-four cattle : 



Product 



34 tongues . . . , 

34 livers , 

34 hearts 

34 tails 

Cheek meat . . . . , 

Head meat 

Fine meat 

Head trimmings 



Total value. 



Weight, 
lbs. 


Value 


Total 
Value 


263 


$0. 55 each 


$18.70 


435 


.35 


11.90 


173 


.07 


2.38 


49 


.03>^ " 


1.19 


185 


.03 per lb. 


5.55 


33 


.03 


.96 


19 


.03 


.57 


36 


,03 


.78 






$43.03 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



111 



The following table shows the yield in casings of same 
thirty-four cattle: 



Product 


Per cent 
used 


Value 


Total 
Value 


34 sets rounds 


100 
38 

100 
94 

88 
74 

■m 


$0.14 set 
.50 " 
.11 each 
.OlJi " 
.05 " 
.30 perdoz 
.01 per lb. 


$4.76 


13 ' ' middles 


6.50 


34 pes. bungrs 

32 " bung gut skins 


3.74 
.40 


30 " weasands 


1..50 


25 " bladders 


.63 


10 lbs weasand meat 


.20 






Total value 






$17,73 










FIG. 46.— BEEF RIB. 



The yield in sweetbreads of same thirty-four cattle 
was 29 pieces weighing 9 pounds, valued at 20c per pound ; 
total value $1.80. The yield in tripe was 34 pieces weigh- 
ing 710 pounds valued at i^c per pound ; total value $3.55. 
Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $5.35. 

The yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was 
2,665 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head 
being 78.38 pounds. 



112 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The following table shows the yield in heads and feet 
of same thirty -four cattle : 



Product 


Total 
weight 


Wt. pel 
head 
lbs. 


Price 


Amount 


\ 

Value 
per head 


Skulls 

Jaws 


119 
71 

100 
73 
37 
31 

371 
33 

184 


3.50 
2.09 
2.94 
2.15 
1.09 

.91 
10.94 

.98 
5.41 


$18.00 per ton 
18.00 
18.00 
22.00 
42.00 
30.00 

.06% per lb. 

.64 per gal. 
16.00 per ton 


$1.07 

.64 

.90 

.80 

.78 

.47 

25.04 

2.82 

1.47 


$0.0315 
.0188 


Knuckles 

Hoofs 

No. 1 r'nd shins 

Flat shins 

No. 1 tallow. . . 
Neatsfoot oil . . 
Tankage 


.0264 
.0236 
.0238 
.0136 
.7384 
'".0836 
.0433 


Totals .... 








$33.99 


$1.0019 










FIG. 47.— BEEF TENDERLOIN. 



Yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as fol- 
lows : 8.6 pounds per head of dry blood ; total 292 pounds ; 
value at the rate of $33 per ton, equals $4.82. 

The yield in sinews of same thirty-four cattle was as 
follows : 1.44 pounds per head ; total weight 49 pounds ; 
value at the rate of $19 per ton, equals 46c. 

The fat from these thirty-four cattle showed the fol- 
lowing yield in stock: 



3,666 lbs. tallow 



3,189 lbs. No. 1 stock = 83.11 per cent. 
383 lbs. scrap tallow = 14 37 
94 lbs. waste = 3.53 



100 00 per cent. 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 



113 



The above 2,189 pounds of stock showed the following 
yield in oleo oil and stearine : 



Product 


Per cent 


Weight, 
pounds 


Price 
per lb. 


Value 


No. 1 oil 

No. 1 stearine 


78.04 

31.06 

.90 


1,708 

461 

20 


$0.11 
.14 


$187,88 
64.54 


Waste in pressing 






Totals 


100.00 


2,189 




$252.42 





The total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle, 
including the tallow, was $356.80; an average per head 
of $10,497. 




FIG. 48.— BEEF ROLL. 



The foregoing records of tests will show the reader the 
actual value of the by-products figured at the time these 
tests were made. Owing to changes in the market condi- 
tions, of course, these figures are more or less valueless, 
but the percentage of yield and different items are abso- 
lutely correct, and the reader can take one of these tests 
and by substituting the market prices of today find out 
what the offal is worth from different lots of cattle killed. 

These tests also give the percentage of the hide and 
tallow. The latter as will be noted is quite high, as it will 



114 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

be seen that the tests were made on a fairly fat grade of 
cattle. 

PEECENTAGE ON DIFFEKENT CUTS OF BEEF. 

Nearly every large city has its special ways and pecu- 
liarities of cutting meats, consequently the percentage of 
the different cuts varies largely. The following table is 





FIG. 49.— BEEF LOIN. 

a record of results from a cutting test and shows the per- 
centage of ' ' Chicago cut ' ' meat with square cut chucks : 

Chicago Cuts— Per Cent. 

Chucks 28.00 

Rounds 23.00 

Navels 8.00 

Flanks 2.00 

Flank steaks 50 

Kidney 25 

Ribs 10.00 

Loins 15.00 

No. 2 suet 50 

No. 1 suet 3.00 

Shanks 4.00 

Brisket 5.00 

Necks 75 

100.00 

The following table shows percentage on cattle cut 
Chicago style, with the exception of a " Kosher chuck," 



DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 115 

the latter consisting of five-rib, four-quarter cut-off from 
the side of the beef : 

"New York Cuts (Natives) — Per Cent. 

Ribs 9.55 

Loins 15.74 

Flanks 5.55 

Navels 8.61 

Suet 3.62 

Rounds 23.27 

New York chucks 33.66 

100.00 

The following table shows the percentage on cattle 
cut Philadelphia style: 

Philadelphia Cuts — Per Cent. 

. Rump and round 34.00 

Rattler (chuck, plate, brisket and shank) 44.00 

Ribs and loins 22.00 

100.00 

The following table gives the result of tests and shows 
in detail the percentages in cutting canner cattle. As will 
be understood, for canning purposes, a light grade of 
animals is always used, cattle that are too light or too 
thin to be used for other purposes. In such cases the 
meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the 
meat are here enumerated, showing their percentages : 

Packing House Cuts — Per Cent. 

Sirloin butts 3.903 

Strips ^ 4.204 

Tenderloins 2.552 

Boneless chucks 13.813 

Rolls 2.552 

Plates ; 12.162 

Insides 7.957 

Outsides 5.555 

Knuckles Ji 5.555 

Clods 5.105 

Rump butts 2.402 

Flank steak 600 

Hanging tenderloin 450 

Front shanks 7 7.207 

Hind shanks 4.650 

Soft bones 6.906 

Trimmings 8.108 

Tallow 1.200 

Kidneys 600 

99.980 

The illustrations presented herewith (Figs. 44 to 49) 
show the principal packing house cuts. 



116 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER V. 
LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING. 

LISTS OP MEN EMPLOYED AND WAGES PAID. 

The number of men necessary in different sized beef 
killing gangs and the wages paid are given in the follow- 
ing tables. While these lists would not always be ap- 
plicable to the exact number of men required in every 
house, owing to local conditions, it conveys accurately to 
the reader the number of men necessary to handle the 
given number of cattle per hour. The wages as quoted 
are those that were paid in all of the principal Amer- 
ican packing centers at the time these lists were com- 
piled. There have been some changes, some have been 
advanced and others lowered, but on the average they 
are very close to those in actual practice. 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

AVages per hour. 

1 man knocking and helping drive up $0.22% 

2 men shaclding, hoisting and helping drive up each .20 

2 headers each .30 

1 sticker 30 

1 man pulling heads and squilgeeing floor 16 

1 man dropping down and pritching up cattle 17% 

1 man taking off and carrying over shackles 16 

2 front leggers, raising gullets and cut out sweetbreads, .each .20 

3 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 

1 boy picking up feet and letting down cattle 16 

4 floor men each .471/2 

1 caul puller 25 

1 breast sawer 25 

1 crotch splitter and wash bellies 16 

1 hooking on 16 

3 fell cutters and cut off cords each .25 

1 rumper and drop bungs 37% 

1 shank washer 16 



LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 117 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR (continued). 

Wages per hour. 

1 tail puller and cut off tails 20 

1 fell puller 171/2 

1 fell beater 20 

1 backer 42i/^ 

1 man working between backer and rumper 42i/^ 

1 gutter 25 

1 man working between gutter and caul puller 25 

2 tail sawers each .25 

2 splitters each AIV2 

1 man splitting two, backing one, dropping one hide on each run .47% 

1 man hanging off 22^/^ 

1 man pushing over to hide dropper 16 

1 man putting up hooks 17% 

1 man squilgeeing fat 16 

1 shank turner and cut off cords 20 

1 paunch puller 17% 

2 hide droppers each .30 

1 chuck splitter 27% 

1 bruise trimmer 20 

1 skirt trimmer 20 

1 scribe sawer and pull spines 20 

1 ladder man 22% 

2 back washers each .16 

1 rib washer 16 

1 shank washer 16 

2 hide truckers and spread their own hides each .16 

1 man scraping 16 

1 kidney washer 16 

2 wipers each .16 

1 man putting in neck rags and skewering up necks 16 

1 man putting on hind shank cloths 10 

1 boy running wringer 10 

1 man pumping shoulders 16 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 knocker ?0.22% 

1 penner 17% 

2 men hoisting and shackling each .20 

1 sticker and help header 30 

2 headers each .30 

1 man dragging heads 16 

1 boy squilgeeing blood 10 

1 man dropping and pritching up cattle 17% 

1 taking off and carrying over shackles 16 

3 on front feet, raise gullets, cut out sweetbreads and cut open 

breasts each .20 

3 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 

1 foot trucker 16 

5 floormen and back three cattle on each run each .47% 

1 caul puller 25 

1 breast sawer 25 

1 crotch burster 16 

1 man hooking on . . . . ; 16 

3 fell cutters each .25 

1 tail burster, cut off one cord and drop bungs 25 



118 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR {continued). 

Wages per hour. 

1 tail puller, cut off one cord 20 

1 rumper 37% 

1 shank washer 16 

1 back washer 10 

1 fell puller llYz 

1 fell beater 20 

1 backer 421/2 

1 man working between backer and rumper 42% 

1 gutter 25 

1 man working between gutter and caul puller 25 

3 tail sawers and beat out six fells per run each .25 

3 splitters and back nine cattle per hour each .47% 

1 man hanging off .22% 

1 man pushing over 16 

1 hook hanger 17% 

1 paunch puller 17% 

1 man squilgeeing fat 16 

3 hide droppers and cut off cords each .30 

1 chuck splitter 30 

1 scribe and split twelve chucks per hour .30 

1 bruise trimmer and trim two on ladder on each run 22% 

1 skirt trimmer 20 

1 ladder man .22% 

1 front shank washer 16 

3 back washers each .16 

1 rib washer 16 

1 hide spreader 16 

2 hide truckers and pull spines each .16 

1 man scraping 16 

1 kidney washer 16 

2 wipers each .16 

1 shoulder pumper and push over cattle to washers 16 

1 man putting in rags and .skewering up necks 16 

1 boy running wringer 10 

1 boy putting on shank cloths 10 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 knocker . $0.22% 

1 penner 17% 

1 bolster 20 

1 shackler 20 

2 headers each .30 

1 sticker, and helps head 30 

1 boy squilgeeing blood and setting cattle 10 

1 man dragging heads 16 

1 man picking up feet 16 

1 man pritching up cattle 17% 

1 man dropping cattle 17% 

1 man taking off and carrying over shackles 16 

3 front leggers raise gullets and cut out sweetbreads. .. .each .20 

4 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 

6 floor men and split nine cattle per hour each .47% 

2 caul pullers each .25 

1 breast sawer 25 

1 man bursting crotches 16 



LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 119 

CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR 

(^continued) . 

Wages per hour. 

1 man hooking on cattle 16 

3 fell cutters each .25 

1 tail burster and cut off cords 25 

1 tail puller and dropping bungs 20 

2 rumpers each .37% 

2 backers each .42% 

1 end man, backs nine cattle, saws twelve breasts and cuts 

fells on nine cattle per hour 42% 

2 fell beaters each .20 

1 fell puller 17% 

1 paunch puller 17% 

1 shank washer 16 

1 back washer 10 

3 tail sawers each .25 

3 splitters each .47% 

1 man hoisting cattle for the hang off 16 

1 man hanging off 22% 

1 man pulling over 16 

4 hide droppers, turning shanks and cut off cords each .30 

1 chuck splitter 30 

1 scriber splits twenty-four chucks and scribes sixty cattle 

per hour 30 

1 bruise trimmer 20 

1 skirt trimmer .20 

2 ladder men trim eighty-four and scribe twenty-four cattle 

per hour each .22% 

1 man pulling up hooks 17% 

1 man squilgeeing fat 16 

1 man spreading hides 16 

2 men picking up hides each .16 

1 man pumping shoulders 16 

1 man pulling spines and pushing cattle back to washers 16 

4 back washers each .16 

1 man scraping cattle 16 

1 man wiping forequarters ^ 16 

1 front shank washer 16 

1 kidney washer and wetting ribs 16 

1 rib washer 16 

1 boy rinsing inside of cattle 10 

1 man wiping hind quarters 16 

1 boy putting rags on hind shanks 10 

1 man wiping beef on floor ) 16 

1 man putting in neck rags and skewering up necks 16 

1 boy putting in kidney rags and skirt skewers 10 

BACK COOLER GANG FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 switching on beds and pushing on scales $0.17% 

1 taking off scales and running elevator 17% 

1 running hot line 17% 

1 switching in cooler 15 

1 pushing back in cooler 15 

1 setting and wiping in cooler 15 

1 skewering backs . .07% 

2 rag boys each .07% 



120 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

BACK COOLER GANG FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

Wages per hour. 

1 switching on beds $0.17i/^ 

1 pushing on scales l?]^ 

1 running elevator 15 

1 running hot line 17i^ 

1 switching in cooler 15 

1 setting and wiping 15 

1 skewering backs 07^ 

2 rag boys each .OTY2 

1 pushing back 171^ 

BACK COOLER GANG FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 switching on beds $0.17% 

1 pushing on scales llVz 

1 running elevator 15 

1 running hot line 17% 

1 switching in cooler 15 

1 pushing back 15 

1 setting cattle 15 

1 wiping cattle 15 

1 skewering backs 15 

2 rag boys each .07% 

TALLOW TRIMMERS AND HEAD BONERS FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 livers and hearts $0.17% 

4 tripe men each .20 

1 pecks and reeds 20 

1 plucks 22% 

1 short guts 20 

1 dumping paunches 20 

3 truckers each .15 

1 trimming bed fat and gut ends 17% 

1 scaler 15 

1 tongueing and sawing off horns 20 

1 pulling jaws 22% 

1 cheeking 30 

1 trimming cheeks 17% 

1 washing tongues 15 

1 trimming jawbones 12% 

For seventy cattle per liour the same as sixty, with 
the exception of there being one extra trncker at 15c 
per honr. 

TALLOAV TRIMMERS AND HEAD BONERS FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 

1 livers and hearts $0.17% 

4 tripe men and helping paunch dumper each .20 

2 pecks and reeds each .20 

2 plucks each .20 

1 short guts 20 

1 boy helping short guts 15 

1 dumping paunches 20 



LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 121 

TALLOW TRIMMERS- AND HEAD BONERS FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR 

(continued) . 

Wages per hour. 

1 trimming bed fat and gut ends 17i/^ 

4 truckers each .15 

1 scaler 15 

1 picking up fat , 10 

1 taking out tongues and sawing oft horns 20 

1 pulling jaws 22i/^ 

1 cheeking 30 

1 trimming cheeks IT^/^ 

1 washing tongues 15 

1 trimming fat 12% 

1 trimming jaws 12% 

CASING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

2 gut runners and cutting out bungs each $0.25 

1 ruffle puller and help strip middles 25 

1 stripping middles 25 

4 fatting middles (2c per set) each .30 

1 turning middles 15 

2 turning rounds each .15 

5 machine men and take from fatter each .20 

1 fatting and skinning bungs 22% 

1 stripping rounds 15 

2 measurers and salters each .20 

2 bung gut slimers, turn and carry over their guts each .20 

2 round gut inspectors each .15 

1 middle gut and bung inspector 12% 

1 v/easand man 25 

1 bladder man .17% 

CASING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 

2 gut runners each $0.25 

1 cutting out bungs and help pull ruffle 22% 

1 ruffle puller and help strip 25 

1 stripping middles and throwing up to fatter 25 

5 fatting middles and bungs (2c per set for middles) each 28c; 

(40c per 100 for bungs) each 5c 33 

1 fatting and skinning bungs 22% 

1 turning middles 12% 

3 turning rounds each .15 

5 machine men and take from fatter each .20 

2 measurers , each .20 

2 bung gut slimers, turn and carry over their guts each .20 

2 round gut inspectors each .15 

1 middle gut inspector and inspecting bungs 12% 

1 weasand man 25 

1 bladder man .'^ 17% 

CASING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 

2 gut runners each $0.25 

1 bung cutter 22% 

1 ruffle puller 25 

2 stripping middles and handing up to fatter each .20 

5 middle gut fatters (2c per set) about 32 

1 fatting bungs 22% 

1 skinning bungs .' .15 

2 turning middles each .12% 



122 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

CASING DEPARTMEXT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR {continued). 

Wages pel' hour. 

3 turning rounds each .15 

1 helping machine man 15 

1 stripping rounds 15 

5 machine men and tal?;ing from fatter each .20 

2 measurers each .20 

2 bung gut slimers each .20 

2 round gut inspectors each .15 

1 middle gut inspector 12% 

1 weasand man 25 

1 bladder man 17% 

1 bung gut inspector 10 

1 Salter 15 



HIDES 123 



CHAPTER VL 
HIDES. 

GENEEAL HANDLING OF HIDES ON KILLING FLOOR. 

In slaughtering cattle, next in value to the beef comes 
the hides, and the handling, curing, etc., of this particular 
part of the animal, until it is ready to be delivered to the 
tanner, is a department in which a great deal of careful 
attention is required to obtain the best results. For con- 




FIG. 50.— HIDE TRUCK FOR CARTING BEEF HIDES. 

venience in handling, a special hide truck, as shown in 
Fig. 50, is usually employed. The platform of the truck 
is 31/4x51/^ feet, with a li/^-inch hardwood plank 8 inches 
high on one side and on front end. The Wheels are about 
18 inches in diameter. The weight of the truck is about 
260 pounds. 

The first consideration, of course, is the condition of 
the hide and in no branch of the packing house industry 
is there more marked improvement of recent years than 
is shown in the handling of hides. Formerly where un- 
skilled workmen were killing only a few cattle daily, or 
weekly, they did not become proficient in the removal of 



124 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

hides and, as cattle dressing requires skilled workman- 
ship, the hide was more or less damaged by scores and 
cuts. But when cattle are killed at one central point, in 
large numbers, it is necessary to make a division of labor, 
and instead of one man doing many parts of the work, he 
simply does one small part continuously, and hence be- 
comes very skilful ; the ' ' take-off ' ' of the hide, particu- 
larly, is improved. That this condition is appreciated by 
tanners is evidenced by the difference in price paid for 
country and packers hides: the tanners paying from 
%c to Ic more per pound for packers hides for no other 
reason than that the hide has been properly taken off in 
the packing house, whereas a country hide, which has 
been taken off by unskilled workmen, has been cut and 
scored, the scores being i^articularly objectionable. 

A score in a hide is made by cutting into the hide, when 
removing it, far enough to damage the grain of the 
leather, and when it comes from the tannery, scores show 
very plainly and in many cases one-half of the thickness 
of the leather is lost by this defect. Hides taken off prop- 
erly should show none of these imperfections whatever 
and, in fact, should be as smooth as though taken off the 
animal with a plane instead of a knife, and with skilled 
workmanship such is the case. By a division of labor, 
one man doing one particular operation continuously, the 
^' take-off " of hides has been so improved that less than 
ten hides out of a thousand are found to be No. 2 hides 
when taken out of the cellar in a well-regulated house. 

The " take-off " of the hides particularly should be 
watched by the killing foreman and the men's attention 
called to the slightest defects continuously, if found, as a 
great deal depends upon the reputation which a house 
may have for its general workmanship. Many of the 
small scores which are found to materially damage the 



HIDES 125 

hide when coming from the tannery are invisible when 
the hide is taken out of the packers' cellar, as owing to 
the discoloration, salt, etc., it is impossible to see many of 
them, but they are all visible when the leather is turned 
out. Consequently, if a house has the name for bad 
" take-off," buyers usually aim to buy the hides coming 
from that plant on a basis that will make them whole, 
taking into consideration the damaged ones which they 
are likely to find. Hence it will be seen that in this par- 
ticular department it means a great deal to have a good 
reputation for the product. 

Outside of the '' take-off " there are several other 
points which should be watched carefully on the killing 
floor in the handling of this particular article. First, 
that the hides should not be damaged with the prod pole 
by the men handling the cattle in the pens. This is fully 
explained in a former chapter. Second, the floor should 
be kept as clean as possible, especially on the heading 
beds where the cattle are thrown out of the knocking 
pens, as it is very objectionable to have blood on the 
hides, especially in the summer time. It is liable to 
cause a rotting or decomposing when the hide is in pack, 
and if it does so sufficiently for the hair to slip on the 
hides, it forms a No. 2. Another bad feature is that a 
bloody hide will discolor the flesh side of the skin next 
to it in the pack, and it is always advisable to get the 
hides out as bright and clean as possible, as the buA^'ers 
prefer them that way.. 

Another reason why they should be kept as dry as pos- 
sible is that the hides, as stated in a previous chapter, are 
weighed as fast as taken off and the report of the weight 
of the different lots of hides taken from their respective 
lots of cattle is turned into the office, not only for general 
record, but also that the test clerk can arrive at the cost 



126 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

of the beef. If the hides are allowed to get wet they will 
take up four or five pounds per hide, which if figured with 
the beef will represent a false credit of 40c or 50c per 
head on the cattle. It is true that a general shrinkage 
could be allowed that might work in the opposite direc- 
tion in the figuring of the beef, making it cost really more 
than it should if the hides had not taken up the water, but 
it is alwaj^s best to keep them as dr}^ as possible, so that 
the weights used for figuring and record purposes may 
be accurate. Another point is that if the hides go into 
the packs wet, with this amount of water in them, when 
they are shipped out they will necessarily show an excess 
shrinkage from green to cured weights, causing confu- 
sion as to actual shrinkage. 

While it is advisable to have the hides carry as much 
moisture as Is acceptable to the buyer, it is not profitable 
to have them too wet, as the buyers are necessarily close 
figurers, and if a lot of hides from a certain house do not 
show the yield in leather at the tannery which they 
should, purchases made after that from such a house, 
credited with an excess moisture in their hides, are made 
proportionate to the yield, hence the additional weight 
that may be gained is more than lost in the price realized. 
The reader, therefore, will see that there is a happy 
medium to be sought in this matter, where the seller gets 
all that he is entitled to and the buyer is satisfied with the 
yield he obtains. 

PROPER STORAGE FOR HIDES. 

This is a point which is not given the consideration 
that is its due, in many cases some packers reasoning 
that as long as their hides are in a building, little else is 
to be considered ; excess shrinkage, also, is not taken into 
consideration as it should be. The following figures, 



HIDES 



127 



wliicli are accurate, will give the reader an idea of the loss 
that lack of attention in this particular matter may repre- 
sent. It will be noted that the test extends over a period 
of one year, representing a test on a total of 198,341 
hides. 

SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOE YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 1. 



Kind 


Number 


Green 
weight 


Cured 
weight 


Shrinkage, 
lbs. 


Shrinlc- 

age, 
per cent 


Free of brands. 

Butt 

Side 

Spreadies 

Texas 


41,870 
6,087 

13,190 
2,376 

11,385 
8,029 
3,759 
1,991 


3,328,133 
507,684 

1,078,959 
215,676 
871,573 
592,338 
150,995 
128,269 


2,842,543 
432,722 
927,835 
190,286 
731,165 
500,935 
127,108 
107,563 


485,591 
74,962 

151,124 
25,390 

140,408 
91,403 
23.887 
20,706 


15.59 
14.77 
14.06 
11.79 
16.11 
15.43 
15.82 
16,14 


Hy native cows 
Light " 
Branded " 


Totals 


87,587 


6,873,627 


5,860,156 


1,013,471 


14.74 



SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOR YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 2. 



Kind 


Number 


Green 
weight 


Cured 
weight 


Shrinkage, 
Ib.s. 


Shrink- 
age, 
per cent 


Free of brands . 

Butt 

Side 

Spreadies 

Native bulls.. 
Branded " 
H'y native cows 
Texas 


34,192 

14,279 

17,302 

3,969 

1,362 

252 

8,222 

5,247 

14,895 

11,034 


a,692,615 

1,174,093 

1,451,850 

363,233 

137,910 

25,885 

576,313 

395,620 

841,481 

694,503 


3,262,426 
97^7,943 

1,198,925 
307,410 
103,263 
21,761 
472,938 
334,100 
709,181 
574,669 


430,189 

196,150 

252,925 

55,833 

34,627 

4,124 

103,375 

71,520 

132,300 

119,834 


15.98 
16.71 
17.43 
15.37 
19.27 
15.93 
17.94 
18.08 


L't native cows 
Branded ' ' 


15.73 

17.25 


Totals 


110,754 


8,343,503 


6,952,616 


1,390,867 


16.67 



A total of 87,587 hides were cured in house No. 1, 
which consists of a cellar under refrigerated rooms. 
While no attempt was made to refrigerate this room there 
was a natural radiation to the floor above which held the 
temperature at from 55° to 60° F. in the hottest weather. 



128 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

There being but two openings in the cellar there was nat- 
urally little circulation of outside air, hence the moisture 
of the cellar was retained and the hides show a shrinkage 
of 14.74 per cent from the green weight on bed to the ship- 
ping weight. 

A total of 110,754 of these hides were cured in 
house No. 2. This was on the first floor of the building 
and no refrigeration was used in any of the departments. 
There were several openings into this room, permitting 
the outside air to circulate through the building and a 
great deal of moisture naturally absorbed. It will be 
noted by comparing the reports that the shrinkage in this 
cellar was 16.67 per cent from the green weight to the 
shipping weight, showing an excess of 1.83 per cent, 
which would show a loss of 154,686 pounds. This, at an 
average price of 10c a pound, would indicate a loss of 
$15,468.60 sustained by having this number of hides in 
this particular cellar, as against what would have been 
realized had they shown no more shrinkage than those in 
house No. 1, so that it will be readily seen that it is of 
vital importance to the owner to see that the hides are 
stored in suitable storage, that there is as little circula- 
tion as possible of outside air through this department, 
and that all doors and openings are kept closed as much 
as possible. 

GRADING OF HIDES. 

This is a question which must be governed largely by 
the local conditions. Many comparatively small killers 
find it profitable to sell their hides flat, that is, without 
making any selections, irrespective of grade, rather than 
to try to make the different selections with a compara- 
tively limited number to select from, whereas, where cat- 
tle are killed in large numbers it is advisable to make just 
as many selections as is profitable to the seller, being 



HIDES 129 

governed, of course, at all times by the market quotations 
and demands. The usual grades of hides are termed as 
follows : 

Natives. — Native steer hides are hides from native 
steers which are free of brands. Another selection of 
natives is what is called " spreadies," which are hides 
taken from native cattle free of brands, cuts, scores, or 
grubs and must be 6 feet 4 inches wide at the shoulders. 

Texas. — This is the term used to designate all hides 
taken otf southern cattle where the hide is very thick and 
heavy. Brands are not taken into consideration on these 
selections. 

Butt Brands. — These are either natives or western 
hides which are branded on the butts. 

Colorados. — These are hides from the western cattle, 
which are too thin for Texas and are branded on the 
sides. . 

A distinction is also made in all these hides as to 
weights, sixty-one pounds and up being heavy, sixty 
pounds and below being light and fifty pounds and below 
being extra light. 

Cow hides are selected as natives and branded cows ; 
bull hides as natives and branded bulls. While all bull 
hides are not sold as such, hides with a thick neck or pate 
are sold under this term. 

GEUBS IlSr HIDES. ^ 

There are two cattle ^' bot-flies " or " warble-flies," 
as they are often termed. One of these {Hypoderma 
lineata) is found in the United States, being found more 
frequently in the southern part of the country. The 
adult is about the size of a honey bee. The female de- 
posits her eggs in summer in the region of the Jieel of the 
animal, causing very much discomfort. In licking the 
irritated spot the eggs are taken into the mouth of the 



130 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

animal and are there hatched, the larvae entering the 
esophagus or gullet and finally working their way into 
the cellular tissue beneath the skin of the back. In early 
spring they develop, forming lumps known as '' war- 
bles," and become what are known as " grubs." After 
working their way out through the skin they drop to the 
ground, into which they burrow and pupate, finally 
emerging as adult flies. The damage caused by these 
insects to the hides amounts to millions of dollars per 
year, as in general practice five grub holes constitute a 
No. 2 hide, on which there is a deduction of one cent per 
pound. 

According to the rules of the trade, Texas and branded 
cows are grubbed from November 1 to June 1, Colorados 
are grubbed from December 1 to June 1, native steers, 
native bulls and native cows are grubbed from January 1 
to June 1. No allowance is made after June 1 for grubs 
in hides taken oif after that date. 

SALT TO BE USED IN SALTIISTG OF HIDES. 

The general appearance and shrinkage of hides is 
largely determined by the salt used. The kind of salt 
generally used in large plants for this purpose is a rock 
salt, which is a mined product run through crushers and 
screens. Large lumps are more or less objectionable and 
if allowed to be used will injure the looks of the hide. 
Hides in a pack weigh very heavily per cubic foot and the 
lower hides are subject to a considerable pressure, or 
weight. Large lumps of salt between the hides in the 
pack make bad looking indentations, although they do not 
necessarily injure the hides for tanning purposes. 

Three parts of rock salt and one part of fine salt 
make a very good combination. The fine salt quickly 
forms a moisture which the hides will absorb, preventing 
quite a perceptible shrinkage, as shown by careful tests. 



HIDES 131 

When a pack of hides is taken up the " second salt " is 
thrown to one side and by mixing one-third new with two- 
thirds of old salt it can be nsed again, until it is entirely 
gone. It will be found that this addition of new salt about 
makes up for the loss in salt that is dissolved in the pack 
during the curing process. 

Salt for the hides should be kept as clean as possible, 
for if there is a great deal of manure and dirt mixed with 
the salt, it discolors the hides, injuring their appearance 
in the eyes of the buyer. When the salt is found to be 
dirty and out of condition it is always advisable to screen 
it, using a screen same as is used for screening sand, 
placed at an angle. The salt is thrown up against the 
screen, when the finer salt will sift through and the 
coarser salt, dirt, etc., will gather at the bottom of the 
screen. Salt that has been through the screen will be 
found comparatively clean and ready for use ; that which 
has not gone through the screen should be thrown in a 
pile and washed with a stream of water. While this will 
dissolve a considerable amount of it, it will, at the same 
time, wash out most of the impurities. 

If handled in the above manner, a careful workman 
should be able to salt hides with from thirty-one to thirty- 
five pounds of salt per hide, on an average. 

BITII.DING OF PA.CKS OF FimES. 

Packing hides is an operation which should receive 
very close and careful attention. In the building of the 
pack, the outer edges should be kept the highest all the 
way round, so that the center of the pack will hold the 
liquor and moisture, and when the pack is finished it 
should be leveled off at the top so that it will be as near 
even as possible. The natural moisture in the hides, to- 
gether with the dissolving salt, will form a liquor which 
the hides readily absorb, and if the pack is built slant- 



132 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ing, so as to shed water like the roof of a house, it will be 
found that the hides are continuously seeping on the 
sides, and when they are taken up the shrinkage from 
green weights will be considerably in excess of those from 
packs properly built. 

TRIMMING OF GREElSr HIDES. 

Before the hides go into the pack they should be ex- 
amined for brands, etc., and be distributed to their proper 
packs, according to assortment made at this point. The 
switch is cut off from the tail, any loose ends of the hides 
are trimmed off and the butt of the ears split. This is 
necessary, for if the hides go into the pack without this 
being done, it makes the pack very uneven on account of 
the thickness of the ears; furthermore the salt does not 
have a chance to penetrate the ears and they are liable to 
spoil. Any loose pieces of meat that the butchers have 
carelessly left on the hide should be taken off, as well as 
any excess amount of fat. The hides after being trimmed 
should be allowed to lie for three to five hours simply 
folded, in order to give the animal heat a chance to 
escape. If the hides are put into the pack before this is 
done, it is likely that, when the pack is taken up, some 
hides will be found on which the hair has slipped; these 
necessarily are No. 2 hides, and as the uniform rule is Ic 
per pound less for No. 2's than for No. I's, it will show a 
loss of approximately 50c to 60c per hide on the average, 
an item well worth saving. Another bad feature of hav- 
ing ' ' slip-hides ' ' is the fact that if the bu3^er finds them 
at all, he is always suspicious that there are others in the 
pack which are out of condition, that he has not seen, and 
that they will come out of the tannery with unsatisfac- 
tory results. 

When hides are put in the pack, extreme care should 
be used to see that every part of the hide is exposed to 



HIDES 133 

the salt. All tlie leggings should be straightened out flat 
and the pates thoroughly spread, so that the salt may 
reach every part. Hides should lie in pack and salt for 
from twenty-five to thirty days before they are fully 
cured. At the expiration of this time they are ready for 
shipment, and are then taken out of the salt, inspected 
and each one rolled into a bundle and tied. 

The switches should be spread out on the floor and 
given a thorough chance to cool off, when they are thrown 
into a pack by themselves and heavily salted. They 
should be watched closely, as there is unavoidably consid- 
erable blood and moisture in them, and if any sign of 
heating is found they should be overhauled and resalted. 

The average cost in the hide cellar for the labor, where 
it is done on a large scale, should be from 5c to 5^2^ per 
hide for the trimming and salting and about 6c per hide 
for the taking up, loading and shipping. Other expenses, 
such as steam, power, electric lights, etc., are not included 
in these figures. 

AVEKAGE SHEINKAGE OF HIDES. 

No set rule can be made as 'to how much hides will 
actually shrink, but if the foregoing directions are fol- 
lowed closely and intelligently the shrinkage may be kept 
at the minimum, which will usually range from 12 to 15 
per cent. This is governed largely, as before stated, by 
the amount of water which the hides take up on the kill- 
ing floor, which if weighed with the hide will nearly all 
seep out when put into the packs and cause an ex- 
cess shrinkage from the original green weights. Further 
the storage has a great deal to do with it, but if proper 
care is taken the shrinkage should be kept within the 
figures given. 



134 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER VII. 
TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE. 

TAI.LOW. 

As is readily understood the largest item of value in 
slaughtered cattle is the beef. As already stated, the 
second largest item is hides. The third item in value is 
tallow, and owing to its many uses it is one worthy of a 
great deal of careful consideration. It has been one of 
the world's staple articles of trade for centuries and is 
made use of in the manufacture of edibles and toilet 
articles too numerous to mention, hence a great deal of 
importance in the ordinary handling of a packing house 
is attached to this particular department. 

Prior to 1871 tallow was used almost exclusively for 
soap making and other manufacturing purposes, com- 
paratively little of it being used for food purposes. Dur- 
ing the siege of Paris by the Germans, a large reward 
was offered to anyone who would find a substitute for 
butter. An eminent French scientist reasoned as follows : 
Careful observation teaches that a cow that is fat and in 
good health makes better butter and more butter than one 
of the same quality that is poor and emaciated, hence it 
must follow the cream of the milk, or the ^' butter fat," 
is in reality nothing more or less than Nature's surplus 
fat in the animal, and that in all beef cattle, whether 
steers or cows, that are fed each day more than the re- 
quirements to build up the broken down tissues, a surplus 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 135 

fat is deposited. This fat, the cliemist decided, was as 
much a natural butter as though it had been skimmed 
from milk, and starting on this theory, worked out a 
plan, which has meant millions of dollars to this country 
in returns that have been made from the sale of fats that 
have been treated for this purpose, instead of being ren- 
dered for tallow purposes only. 

Hereafter to designate the difference between tallow 
and oleo oil, we will use the terms, '^ rendered tallow," 
and ^' melted oleo," as these terms describe the differ- 
ence between two distinct articles. 

In the rendering of tallow it is ]}ut into a tank and 
there subjected to about forty pounds pressure of steam, 
which is equivalent to a temperature of .about 280° F. 
Being thus cooked for eight or nine hours, the tissues 
which hold the fat cells, which look very much like honey- 
comb under a microscope, are thoroughly disinte- 
grated and burned, thereby giving the oil which is ex- 
tracted from them a high color, as well as a strong taste, 
thereby making it practically unfit to use for edible prod- 
ucts. 

Melted oleo is the product bf the fat which is put 
through the oleo house and is used in making oleomar- 
garine, or imitation butter. In this case the fat is first 
put through a hasher, which thoroughly disintegrates it, 
mangling as much as possible all the little cells and tis- 
sues, so that the heat readily gets at the oil cells. It is 
then dropped into an open kettle, around which is a jacket 
containing hot water. The temperature of the kettle is 
brought up to 150° to 155° F,, the mass being agitated 
during the jDrocess, and the oil is thus released from the 
cells. This temperature is not sufficient, however, to 
burn the tissues, consequently there is no bad flavor de- 
veloped and the oil, when properly treated, has a rich 



136 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



ereamy flavor, and is very palatable. The foregoing re- 
marks are inserted in a general way, so that the reader 
may readily understand the difference between tallow, as 
commercially quoted, and oleo oil, althongh both products 
are made from the same original material. 

OLEO FAT. 

Under this heading is designated all the fat that comes 
out of the animal when slaughtered which is saved in a 




FIG. 51.— CROSS SECTION OF OLEO OIL HOUSE. 



clean and wholesome condition. It is reasonable to sup- 
pose that all the fat in the animal, when killed, is abso- 
lutely of the same quality, but in the handling of this 
daring the course of slaughtering and treatment thereof, 
some of it necessarily becomes unfit for oleo oil purposes, 
and is therefore run into the rendered tallow. The 
amount which goes to the rendered tallow, or to the oleo 
fat, is regulated by the care and intelligence of the men 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 



137 



having this operation in cliarge, and if properly handled 
a very small percentage of the fat in the animal should 
find its way to the tank house, as it nets much better re- 
sults when put into oleo oil, as will be noted from the 
tests hereafter submitted. 

Fig. 51 represents a cross section of the top floors of 
an oil house, showing the location of hashers, melting and 
settling kettles, together with vats for chilling fats, and 




FIG. 52.— LOCATION OF HASHERS, ETC., IN OIL HOUSE. 



oleo presses. Fig. 52 shows plan of location of hashers 
and kettles, the dotted lines indicating location of chill 
vats on floor below for the reception of fresh fat after it 
has been run through the fat cutter where the fat is held 
until the animal heat is entireh^ taken out. 

The fat, as fast as taken from the animal, sho]ild be 
handled with care and cleanliness and put into cold water, 



138 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



where it is thoroughly washed before going to the ice 
water to be chilled. Thorough chilling of the fat is a very 
essential feature in making oleo oil. In order that this 
may be done it is necessary that the fat be cut up so that 
the ice water can get at every part of it. The machine 
illustrated in Fig. 53 is used for cutting the fat while it 
is still warm, before it goes to the ice water. It is the 
most economical plan to have the chilling vats for the fat 
as close to the melting department of the oil house as pos- 




-OLEO FAT CUTTER. 



sible. There are a number of these vats used generally, 
according to the requirements of each particular plant, 
and they are set up side by side. Along the end of these 
vats should be placed the washing vat, or vat into which 
the fat first comes from the killing floors. The fat goes 
into this water, where it is thoroughly washed b}^ con- 
tinually immersing it in the water, when it is forked 
across to one of the permanent vats, which is either 
equipped with brine coils on the inside, or contains ice. 
Here the fat is graded, according to the quality of the dif- 
ferent oils it is to be used for, and is allowed to stand for 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 139 

at least five hours, or until it has become thoroughly 
chilled. Every precaution should he taken to see that no 
fat goes to the hasher, or melting kettle, until all the 
animal heat is thoroughly removed. Failure to do this is 
not particularly noticeable in the oleo oil when made, but 
very soon afterward results in a deterioration of the 
oil. It is never objectionable to hold the fat from twelve 
to twenty hours, if necessary, in the iced or cold water, 
although five hours is all that is necessary to remove the 
animal heat. 

As the different kinds of fat have more or less dif- 
ferent flavors, it is wise to make careful selections in 
order to get the best results, it being impossible to make 
a grade of all No. 1 oil, 10 or 15 per cent of the total being- 
No. 2. The balance of the product, eliminating the 10 or 
15 per cent, should be strictly No. 1 oil, but if the whole 
output is made into one grade, it would not be acceptable 
as No. 1. Hence it will be seen that it is the better part of 
wisdom to make two and sometimes three grades of this 
product, as indicated above. 

GRADING FOR 0LE5 OIL. 

Of all the oleo oil made in this country, 75 to 90 per 
cent is shipped to Holland, where it is made into butter- 
ine and distributed throughout the continent and Eng- 
land. The requirements of these consumers seem to have 
changed within the last few years and the melters of oleo 
oil strive to get the oils in the condition to best suit the 
Hollanders' demands. A¥hat they seem to require is, 
first of all, a very neutral oil, or in other words an oil 
with as little flavor and smell as possible, whereas only a 
few years ago just the opposite was the case, and the 
whole endeavor at that time was to get an oil with as 
much flavor as could be made. In grading the fats a 



140 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

neutral or No. 1 oil is obtained from the following parts : 

Caul fat. 

Ruffle fat. 

Caul piece of gut end. 

Briskets trimmed from the bed pickings. 

Crotch trimming from the bed pickings. 

Paunch trimmings. 

Pluck trimmings. 

Reed trimmings. 

Heart casing fats. 

For a No. 2, or second grade, wliicli, though it may 
realize nearly as high a price as the first oil, is an oil of 
high flavor, the following parts are used : 

Gut ends — small fat. 

Chipped fat, which is taken off of the middle guts. 

Machine fat, which is fat taken oft of round guts by the fatting 
machines. 

Heart trimmings. 

Pluck trimmings. 

Miscellaneous bed pickings of the second grade. 

Kidney fat. 

Clean trimmings from cattle which are being cut up for can- 
ning or sausage purposes. 

Skimmings from scrap vat of No. 1 oil. 

A third grade of oleo oil, which will be quite inferior 
to either of the other two named, but for which at times 
there is a good demand, often netting more than the same 
product would, if made into rendered tallow, is made 
from the following trimmings : 

Head fat. 

Fat trimmed from cattle heads when cheeking. 

Plucked sweetbreads trimming. 

Liver trimmings. 

Bladder trimmings. 

Fat from chilled beef tongues, when they are trimmed. 

Miscellaneous fats from other departments, which is kept 

clean. 
The first washings from the oleo press cloths before soda has 

been used. 
Scrap vat skimmings from the second grade of oil. 

If fat is graded as above suggested, and handled 
properly in the different departments in the oleo house, 
satisfactory grades of oil should be made. 

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 54) shows the 
kind of kettles originally used for the making of oleo oil, 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 



1-11 



and their arrangement. These kettles are made of cast- 
iron, one kettle placed inside of another, and the space 
between filled with boiling water. Owing to the thickness 
of the metal the radiation from the jacket is more or less 
sluggish and is easily controlled. 

The hasher most generally used, as per accompany- 
ing view (Fig. 55) is what is known as the '' Enterprise " 
hasher. It is the same style of machine as is used in the 
manufacture of sausage, but is of a special pattern to the 




FIG. 54.— DIAGRAM OF OLEO OIL KETTLE. 

extent that it is jacketed on the outside, it being necessary 
to use steam in the jacket in hashing cold* tallow, other- 
wise the hasher would be clogged up and the tallow would 
not go through. 

The first kettle is called the '' melting kettle," the mid- 
dle kettle the " clarifier," and the other kettles the 
'' small kettles." It will be noted that in this method of 
handling, the two small kettles are required to hold the 
contents of one clarifier. As stated before, this is the 
first type of kettle put into practice and is still in opera- 



142 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



tion in many plants, and altliougii the author does not 
recommend this particular type he considered it advis- 
able to describe it in detail. 

A LATEE STYLE OF OLEO KETTLE. 

A more modern style of oleo kettle very extensively 
used in all the large melting establishments, is illustrated 
in Fig. 56, The advantage of this kettle over the other is 
its economy of operation as it takes no more of the man's 



'- ' I 





FIG. 55.—" ENTERPRISE " HASHER FOR OLEO OIL MAKING. 

time to melt a kettle holding 5,500 pounds of stock than it 
does the old style kettle shown in Fig. 54, holding 1,500 
pounds. Further, the kettles known as the claritiers and 
the small kettles are, by this method, combined into one 
settling kettle, shown in Fig. 57, the settling kettle being 
practically the same size as the melter, and is placed 
directl}^ under it. When the fat is melted it is siphoned 
into the settling kettle, the same as in the other method 
described, but is held in this kettle longer, and is tlior- 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 143 




FIG. 56.— MODERN KETTLE FOR MELTING FATS FOR OLEO OIL. 



144 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



oughly settled before being drawn into the seeding trucks. 
In this operation the melted fat passes through a pipe 




J y~3 PIPE. 

VERTICAL JOINTS DOUBLE ! WIVETB D STAGGERED. 




FIG. 57.— SETTLING KETTLE FOR OLEO OILS. 

which is somewhat enlarged or funnel-shaped, and over 
the end of which is fastened a screen consisting of three 
or four thicknesses of bags made from canton flannel. 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 145 

The stock, when drawn into the truck, has to pass through 
this flannel, which strains it, taking out a great deal of 
tissue or other foreign matter which may be in the oil. 

In the general handling of these kettles, it requires 
about thirty-five minutes to hash a kettle of oil weighing 
about 5,500 pounds. It takes about one hour to melt (the 
temperature at the time of melting should be about 150° 
F.), about one hour to settle in the melting kettle, and 
two hours and thirty minutes to settle in the receiving 
kettle, drawing off same at a temperature of about 120° 
F., into the seeding trucks. This particular style of kettle 
is not only more economical in operation but also to in- 
stall. The results in yield are the same with either style 
of kettle. 

No. 2, or flavored oil, is handled in the same manner, 
except that it should be melted at 155° F. 

No. 3, or the low grade oil, is handled the same as 
above, except that it is melted at 165° F. 

OIL HOUSE INSTEUCTIOlSrs. 

First. — See that the fat comes to the house in good 
condition, properly trimmed, all pieces of meat, lungs, 
guts, etc., being completely removed, and that the fat is 
handled promptly, without allowing it to lie around and 
become partially stale and sour before it is received at 
the department. * 

Second. — When it is received, don't allow the fat to 
l^ile up in the vats ; see to it that the ice water has come 
in contact with all parts of it and thoroughly chilled it. 
When caul fat is extra heavy it is well to examine all the 
largest pieces closely and see that they are all thoroughly 
chilled through. 

Third. — Arrange to have no ice or cooling pipes in the 
vat where the fat is received, it simply being thrown in 



146 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

here to give it a thorough washing. The next vat to which 
it is thrown, however, should have cooler pipes. The 
reason for this is to save refrigeration. The water in the 
vats into which the fat is first thrown must be changed 
daily, but in the vat in which the fat is chilled, the water 
need not be changed more than twice a week, if kept cold 
continuously. 

Fourth. — Do not begin hashing until the fat is prop- 
erly cooled, and the animal heat all removed. It will take 
from three to five hours to accomplish this, under or- 
dinary conditions. 

Fifth. — It is wise never to begin hashing until there is 
fat enough ahead to either finish the day's work, or at 
least to keep the house running and to hash a kettle full 
regularly, as it is impracticable to stop in the middle of 
the operation of hashing a kettle of fat, for when once 
commenced it must be continuous. 

Sixth. — In the beginning turn sufficient steam on the 
hasher to facilitate the cutting, having the material come 
through as cold as possible. If too much steam is used it 
partially melts the fat in the hasher and disintegration is 
not perfect. 

Seventh. — For melting kettles which hold about 1,400 
pounds of hashed fat about half an hour should be re- 
quired to do the hashing. While the capacity of the 
hasher might be much greater it is well to have the fat 
partially melted during the course of hashing, so as not 
to have too large a body of unmelted fat in the melters. 

Eighth. — The time for melting, settling and letting 
down the stock into the clarifiers from the melting kettles 
should not exceed two hours and twenty minutes. 

As soon as hashing is begun, the agitator should be 
started revolving. When through hashing, the man over- 
seeing the melting, after allowing the agitator to run five 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 147 

or ten minutes, should lift it out of tlie kettle and clean it 
off thoroughly with a paddle, and then drop it back into 
the kettle. In doing this the fat that has accumulated 
around the center of the kettle, where no heat is avail- 
able, will find its way to the outer surface where it comes 
in contact with the hot sides of the kettle and is melted. 
If this is not done several times during the course of 
hashing, unmelted fats will be found in the bottoms when 
they are ready to drop to scrap vat. 

The steam should be turned on in the jacket of the ket- 
tle as soon as hashing is started. Keep the steam on 
until the fat shows a temperature of 140° to 142° F. The 
steam should then be shut off and the surplus heat in the 
kettle will run the fat up to 150° F., which should be the 
maximum melting point for No. 1 neutral oil. No. 2, or 
the flavored oil, may be melted at 155° F. No. 3, or low- 
est grade of oil, may be melted at 160° F., and in some 
instances 165° F. 

As soon as it is evident that the fat is thoroughly 
melted the agitator should be stopped and pulled out of 
the oil, and it should stand at least an hour, the steam 
being shut off from the jacket, giving it a chance to settle. 
On this particular process depends the entire result of 
the making of oleo oil, as the fat being so thoroughly dis- 
integrated in the hasher when it is melted, a great deal 
of tissue from this fat is held in suspensiorl in the oil and 
it must have very careful handling in order to get it 
thoroughly settled out. Jf it is not all removed from the 
oil, the latter will turn strong from the decomposition of 
the tissues. 

After the oil has settled throw in about fifteen to 
twenty pounds of fine salt, scattering it thoroughly over 
the surface of the oil, the salt having the effect of carry- 
ing with it any unsettled tissues which may still remain 



148 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

in the oil. The top of the oil should then be carefully 
skimmed for, as will be noted, there is quite a scum float- 
ing on the top when it is settled. After this is done the 
siphon pipe (see Fig. 56) is dropped down into the oil 
and the oil is taken off very carefully from the top of the 
scrap. It is very essential in drawing this with the siphon 
pipe that as little scrap and water as possible be taken 
with it. After the oil has been taken off as far as pos- 
sible with the siphon the bottom valve of the melting 
kettle is opened, dropping the contents into the scrap vat. 
The kettle should be thoroughly washed and cleaned be- 
fore it is used again. 

Ninth. — The oil is now in the clarifier and should be 
kept at a temperature of about 140° F. It should be al- 
lowed to remain in the clarifying kettle about an hour, 
and during this time should lose about ten degrees in 
temperature, perfect settling being possible only by low- 
ering the temperature of the material. It should also be 
lowered about ten degrees in the settling or small kettles. 

While oil is in the clarifier, sprinkle about four 
pounds of salt on the top of the stock. As soon as it is 
settled skim immediately, and again a second time before 
the oil goes into the smaller kettles. Skim the oil in the 
small kettles before letting same into seeding truck, if re- 
quired. It should not require to be skimmed in the small 
kettles if handled properlj^ in the clarifier. 

It should be drawn off into the seeding truck at a tem- 
perature of 120° to 125° F., care being taken at all times 
in siphoning the oil from the different kettles to see that 
no water has gotten into the oil. As it is impossible to 
draw the oil all out of the different kettles with the 
siphon, the oil that is left in the bottom of the kettle each 
time should be taken back and put into the melting kettle 
and allowed to run through with the next melting of fat. 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 



149 



Tenth. — Be particular to have the kettles washed each 
time after being emptied and see that they are kept at 
proper heat to receive each lot of fat when ready. 

Eleventh. — See that all water, siphon pipes, and draw- 
ing-off pipes to the seeders be thoroughly scalded and 
steamed out before drawing, as there is invariably an 
accumulation in these pipes, which if allowed to go un- 
cared for will turn rancid and injure the quality of the oil. 

SEEDING TEUCKS. 

The seeding truck plays a very important part in the 
handling of oleo oil and is one of the points where a great 




FIG. 58.— OLEO SEEDING TRUCK. 



deal of trouble can be developed if not properl}^ watched. 
When the oil is drawn from the small kettles into the 
seeding trucks there should be no signs of m\j water. If 
there is any water left in the oil it naturally goes to the 
bottom of the seeding truck, the water being the heaviest. 
The oil being at a temperature of 120° to 125° F., and it 
being three and sometimes four days before it is taken 
out, the heat thus held in the oil, together with the water 



150 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

that may be in the bottom, causes a decomposition and the 
result is " sour bottoms," which are very offensive. If 
any of this sour material has gotten into the press, the 
stearine will be spotted and out of condition. The oil 
will also show it more or less, so that it is absolutely nec- 
essary that this particular point be given very close and 
careful attention. 

It has for many years been considered necessary that 
the seeding truck be lined with galvanized iron, and in 
fact many of the large melters today are using this style 
of truck. The seeding truck, however, which gives the 
best results is a plain wooden truck (see Fig. 58), with- 
out any lining, made of basswood, or whitewood, which 
are odorless, and can be readily cleaned and kept sweet. 
The objections to a truck lined with galvanized iron might 
be summarized as follows: 

In the first place, as will have been noted in reading 
the instructions, considerable salt is used in the material, 
more or less of which is left in the oil. Now when the 
melted fat is drawn off into the seeding trucks and is left 
to stand for three or four days, this salt attacks the iron, 
and if not watched very carefully small pin-holes will 
be eaten through the iron, the result being that the gal- 
vanized iron pan will leak into the wooden box proper. 
Again, every time the seeding trucks are emptied, they 
are thoroughly washed and steamed out and more or less 
of this water for washing finds its way in between the 
lining and the wooden box. ^Hien the seeding truck is 
filled with oil, the weight of the oil causes this water, 
which is held between the iron and the wood, to ooze 
into the oil, causing '' sour bottoms " and the manager 
is at a loss to know why his oil is not as good as it should 
be. This particular point has caused the loss of a great 
many thousands of dollars in the manufacture of this 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 151 

product, even though it is apparently a very unimportant 
matter. 

In handling wooden seeding trucks, the reader's atten- 
tion is called to a very important item to be considered, 
and if not carefully looked after the results will be unsat- 
isfactory. As shown, the oil is drawn into seeding trucks 
at a temperature of about 120° to 125° F., a temperature 
of itself which will shrink wood very rapidly, therefore 
the trucks should be made out of thoroughly kiln-dried 
lumber, which should be extra kiln-dried, because the heat 
of the oil will cause further shrinkage. The bottom and 
sides of the truck are bolted together with a bolt running 
through them and one on either end, so that any shrink- 
age of the wood can be taken up. The same is true of the 
sides of the truck. In each of the joints, after they are 
perfectly made, a strand of wicking should be put in be- 
tween the edges, so that when it is drawn down it forms 
a perfect packing. As is well understood, the shrinkage of 
wood is mostly crosswise of the grain, there being very 
little lengthwise; thus it will be seen that the wood in 
these trucks, both at the sides and at the ends, must be 
put in so that it will all shrink uniformly. And now comes 
the point which must be watched closely. The bottom of 
the truck will naturally shrink sidewise and if the bolts 
are drawn up it stops the opening, while if the sides of 
the truck shrink, the bottom bolts can be di^awn up, readily 
stopping the leak. The ends of the truck must have the 
grain running up and^down instead of crosswise, for if 
the bottom of the truck joins sidewise and the end pieces 
are running crosswise of this grain, it will be impossible 
to draw the bottom up tight, on account of lack of shrink- 
age of the ends where the grain runs lengthwise of the 
end. The grain, therefore, of the end pieces should run 
up and down and be thoroughly bolted together, then 



152 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

when the truck shrinks, as it naturally will, the shrinkage 
can be immediately taken up, all parts alike, and the truck 
kept perfectly tight. 

The room into which the seeding trucks with their 
contents are run should be held at a temperature of 85° 
to 90° F. The material in the seeding trucks, which is now 
called ^' stock," should be pressed at a temperature of 
from 78° to 84° F., according to its quality, as well as to 
the percentage of stearine which it is desirable to make. 
The lower the temperature at which the oil is pressed 
the more stearine will be retained in the cloths. After 
the stock is chilled to above temperature it will be found 
that a granulation has taken effect and a very fine oil will 
be observed on the top of the truck, whereas the heavier 
and granulated parts of the fat will be at the bottom. 
This should be thoroughly mixed up before it is sent to 
the press by a man simply running his hands into the fat 
and pulling it up from the bottom, care being used to see 
that he does not scrape the bottom of the cooler. If 
there is any moisture in the bottom of the truck he would 
spoil the condition of the stock by mixing it thoroughly. 
Whereas, if it is not agitated, when it is taken out of the 
truck the bottom can be examined, and, if it is good, it 
can be used; otherwise it should be sent to the tallow 
tanks. After the stock is thoroughly broken up or mixed 
it is ready for the press, it first being wrapped in cloths. 
Fig. 59 shows an oleo press of the " knuckle " type. 
This is the type of press generally used in all oleo oil 
factories at the present time, being found preferable to 
the hydraulic presses. 

The cloth used in connection with this press is a 
medium weight piece of ducking canvas, which is cut in 
the proper sized pieces, about 18 inches square. The 
cloth is first put on the "'former," which is filled with a 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 



15: 



dipper full of stock; the attendant wraps it up carefully 
and the man filling the press as it conies around in 
the wheel, takes the wrapped stock and lays it on the 
plate, using eight bags of stock on each plate in the 
press, generally using sixty steel plates for each press. 




FIG. 59.— KNUCKLE TYPE OLEO OIL PRESS. 

When the press is full the power is turned on. The slow 
speed should be used almost exclusively after the press 
is started in order to give the oil sufficient time to seep 
out through the canvas. 

The oil as it comes out of the press should run to a 
receiving tank, as many of these tanks being used as is 



154 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



necessary to keep the different grades of oil separated. 
AVliere oil is being made in large quantities it is always 
advisable to have the receiving tank hold sixty tierces, or 
a car load of oil, for if smaller receivers are used the oil 
is liable to run irregular. 

The quality of oil varies, as does the quality of cattle ; 
for instance, choice native cattle, which are very fat, make 
a finer, better oil than western cattle which are not in 
good condition, and as the killing is always liable to run 
irregular, if the oil is not assembled in large quantities, 




■12-0 



1L 



'"'"'-'^'-'^M 









-^ THICH 



OUTLET. 



CAP/AC/TV owe: carload 



FIG. 60.— OLEO OIL RECEIVER. 



makes from the different grades of cattle will show dif- 
ferent qualities of oil, and if this is often perceptible, 
manufacturers soon acquire the reputation of making ir- 
regular oil. When that reputation is once established 
buj^ers scrutinize closely before making purchases. 

The receivers for the oil, above mentioned, should be 
either jacketed or have a boat bottom; that is, one vat 
placed inside of the other (see Fig. 60), so that the tem- 
perature of the oil in the receivers may be regulated, but 
under no conditions should steam pipes be used in connec- 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 155 

tion with oleo oil ; all heating should be done by radiating 
surfaces with hot water. In having the vat made with a 
boat bottom it is simply necessary to fill up the space with 
water and turn on steam, holding the water at the desired 
temperature. The oil in the receiver, when ready to be 
tierced, should be raised to a temperature of from 116° 
to 118° F., and then drawn off, the tierces being filled 
through a side bung. After the tierce is filled it should be 
rolled away and left undisturbed in a temperature of 50° 
F. for at least four days. The oil thus handled will show 
a granulation, which is very desirable. If the oil is not 
allowed to stand until it has thoroughly granulated, or 
" seeded " it will come out smooth or pasty, and pasty oil 
is very objectionable to the purchaser. If the oil is not 
drawn off at this temperature it will be found difficult to 
have it seed properly, as it chills too quickly for a good 
granulation to take efifect. It is not wise to draw the oil 
into a temperature lower than 50° F. 

After the oil has been seeded it can be kept in any 
storage that is available below 60° F., but it must be put 
into the refrigerating temperature for the first three or 
four days in order to get the best results. 

STEAKINE. 

Stearine is the product which is left in the cloths after 
pressing the stock from the seeding trucks. This product 
is used for many purposes, but largely for the manufac- 
ture of compound lard on account of its " titer " test, 
which is the method of determining the hardness of 
fats. Ordinary tallow will run 413/2 to 43, titer ; oleo oil 
runs 40 to 42, titer; oleo stearine should run 50 to 52, 
titer. 

After the oil is thoroughly pressed out, the press is 
run up and the stearine taken out of the cloths. The 



156 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



stearine should be thrown into a bin where there is an 
abundant circulation of pure air, in order to thoroughly 
take the heat out of the stearine ; for if it is put into the 




FIG. 61.— STEARINE PACKER. 



package too warm, a mold will form which deteriorates 
it and reduces its value. After it is thoroughly chilled it 
is put up into packages, either by pounding it, or by 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 157 

means of a machine, recently invented, which is being 
used very generally and which saves a great deal of labor 
and puts more material into the package. An illustration 
of this machine is given in Fig, 61. 

Stearine, after being put in packages, can be held for 
thirty days in almost any kind of storage. If held longer 
than that, it should be put into a room kept at a tempera- 
ture of from 40° to 45° F, and which is perfectly dry. 
Stearine, generally speaking, is a very unsatisfactory 
article to carry any length of time, for, in pressing, any 
moisture which may be in the stock is left in the stearine, 
and if carried for some time this moisture produces a dis- 
coloration, which is known to the trade as " spotted 
stearine." It also causes a moldy or musty smell, which 
injures it for edible purposes, and while it is often car- 
ried for months for an anticipated rise in the market, it is 
quite as often regretted that it was not sold when it was 
in good condition for the market. 

OLEO OIL AND STEAEINE PACKAGES. 

Stearine is always packed in slack packages, the regu- 
lar package being 34 inches high, 90 inches in circumfer- 
ence at the bilge and 23% inches across the head, with 
eight patented hoops. Oleo oil is always put into a special 
tierce which is 34 inches high, 81 inches in circumference 
at bilge and 21 inches across heads, with six iron hoops. 

OIL HOUSE YIELDS. i 

The yields of oleo oil and stearine from stock are reg- 
ulated largely by the prices of the ditferent articles, as, 
for instance, when oil is low and stearine is high it is 
advisable to press the stock at a lower temperature, mak- 
ing all the stearine possible. Reverse the conditions and 
it is advisable to press the stock at a high temperature, 
making all the oil possible, hence the general yield of oil 
in stearine is largely regulated by the price of the two 



158 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

articles, but the yield of stock from the raw tallow is 
something which interests all melters, and it is of vital 
importance that the fats be purchased by melters on a 
safe basis as to yield. As will be noticed, fat gains very 
materially in weight when put into water, as it absorbs a 
large amount, and in purchasing fat for melting purposes 
this must be taken into consideration. 

SCRAP VAT. 

Another vessel which requires a great deal of atten- 
tion and in which the yield in the oil house can be very 
materially increased and improved by proper handling 
is the scrap vat. After the fat is melted and the oil si- 
phoned off, the balance or residue in kettle is drawn out of 
the bottom into the scrap vat, which is located directly 
under the melting kettle. This kettle should be kept full 
of hot water at a temperature of about 130° F. and when 
the scrap is dropped in the oil will immediately come to 
the surface ; this should be skimmed off promptly, for if it 
is allowed to lie in the scrap vat a bad flavor will result 
and it will then have to be sold as an inferior grade of oil ; 
but if skimmed as stated this strong flavored feature may 
be avoided. 

When through melting for the day, the steam should 
be turned on the scrap vats to bring them up to a tem- 
perature of 190° to 200° F. This will release any fat yet 
remaining in the scrap, which should be skimmed and 
used for a lower grade of oil, as it will have a strong 
flavor. The balance of the scrap is then sent to the tank 
house, where it is cooked under pressure and the remain- 
ing oil taken out. 

TESTS OlSr OIL HOUSE YIELDS. 

The following are from actual tests showing the 
pounds and percentages of yield of different kinds of fat 
when made into oleo oil. The tables, as will be noted, 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 159 

only show the percentages of fat in oleo stock, this con- 
sisting of the oleo oil and stearine before it has been 
pressed : 

TEST NO. 1. 

Caul fat run to No. 1 oleo oil: 

Hot weight from beds (dry) 1,505 lbs. 

Chilled twenty hours, net weight 1,937 lbs. 



(^ain from hot weight 28.70%= 432 lbs. 

Weight of chilled fat to oil house 1,937 lbs. 

This fat, hashed into melting kettle, cooked one hour and 
five minutes, settled one hour, drawn into receiver, settled 
two hours, and drawn into coolers, gives following: 

Yield of oleo stock. . . .1,238 lbs. = \ ?|-ff2'/'°'^ T?-n J^^^-^L 

I 63.91% from chilled weight 

Ruffle fat ru7i to No. 1 oleo oil: 

Hot weight from beds (dry) 1,518 lbs. 

Chilled twenty hours, net weight 1,735 lbs. 



Gain from hot weight 14.29%= 217 lbs. 

Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,735 lbs. 

This fat, hashed into melting kettle and cooked one hour, 
then settled one hour fifteen minutes, after which drawn into 
receiver and again settled for two hours, and drawn into 
cooler, gives following: 

Yield of oleo stock. . . .1,018 lbs. = \ ^IfJ^^ .^^^ I'^l, Z^'-^\, 

I 58.67% from chilled weight 

TEST NO. 2. 

The second test is very similar to the first, except that 
it is made on the " peck and reed " fat, which is always 
used in a No. 1 oil. 

Peck and reed fat to oleo oil: 

Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,082 lbs. 

Through small wash vat to wash (weight from water). 1,211 lbs. 



Gain in washing from hot weight 11.92%r= 129 lbs. 

Weight to chill vat 1,211 lbs. 

Chilled sixteen hours, weight \ 1,255 lbs. 



Gain from washed weight 44 lbs. 

Gain in chilling from hot weight 15.90%= 172 lbs. 

Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,255 lbs. 

Handled in the usual way gives following: 

( 67.19% from hot weight 

Yield of oleo stock 727 lbs = -| 60.03% from washed weight 

( 57.93% from chilled weight 

TEST NO. 3. 

The third test is chipped fat used for No. 1 oleo. This 
is a fat which is cut off the middle gut, when being fatted. 



160 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Chip fat to No. 1 oleo oil: 

Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,500 lbs. 

Through small vat to wash (weight from water) ... .1,639 lbs. 



Gain in washing from hot weight 9.26%^ 139 lbs. 

Weight to chill vat 1,639 lbs. 

Chilled eighteen hours, weight 1,760 lbs. 



Gain from washed weight 7.38%=; 121 lbs. 

Gain in chilling from hot weights 17.33%= 260 lbs. 

Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,760 lbs. 

Handled in the usual way, gives following: 

/•65.40% from hot weight 
Yield in oleo stock. . .981 lbs. = J 59.85% from washed weight 

(55.74% from chilled weight 

TEST NO. 4. 

Test No. 4 is made on the gut end fat, which consists 
of miscellaneous trimmings from the gut, ends, etc. 

No. 1 gut end fat to oleo oil: 

Net weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,347 lbs. • 

Through small vat to wash (weight from water) ... .1,514 lbs. 



Gain from hot to washed weight 12.40%= 167 lbs. 

Weight to chill vat 1,514 lbs. 

Chilled twenty hours, weight 1,532 lbs. 



Gain from washed weight .1.19%= 18 lbs. 

Gain to chilled from hot weight 13.73%= 185 lbs. 

Weight of chilled fat to oil house. 1,532 lbs. 

Handled in usual way gives following: 

(61.39% from hot weight 

Yield of oleo stock 827 lbs.= \ 54.62% from washed weight 

(53.98% from chilled weight 

TEST NO. 5. 

This was a test to determine the value and yield of 
caul and ruffle fat from 165 cattle. 

Test on caul and ruffle fat: 

Total weight 5,252 lbs., av. wt. per head, 32 lbs. 

Yield "A"' oleo oil 52. 38%=2,751 lbs. at $8.15 per cwt. $224.21 

Yield No. 1 stearine. .22.92%=!, 204 lbs. at 8.65 per cwt. 104.14 
Yield skimmings to 

No. 3 oil 1.71%= 90 lbs. at 6.40 per cwt. 5.76 

77.01% 

Yield scrap to tank 421 lbs. 

Yield tallow 19.24%=81 lbs., at $ 4.60 per cwt. 3.73 

Yield tankage (dry) 3.80%=16 lbs., at $17.50 per ton .14 



$337.98 

Value per cwt. of fat $6.43 

Value per head of fat 2.05 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 161 

The prices per 100 pounds on oil, stearine and skim- 
mings are the market prices at time test was made, less 
department expense for 60c per 100 pounds. The price 
on tallow is market price less 40c per 100 pounds, depart- 
ment expense. 

TEST NO. 6. 

The following is a test of tripe fat made into No. 1 
oleo stock: 

Tripe fat to oleo oil: 

Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,639 lbs. 

Through small vat to wash (weight from water) .. .1,860 lbs. 

Gain in washing from hot weight 13.48%= 231 lbs. 

Weight to chill vat 1,860 lbs. 

Chilled twenty hours, weight 2,009 lbs. 

Gain from washed weight 8.01%z=: 149 lbs. 

Gain in chilling from hot weight 22.57%= 370 lbs. 

Weight chilled to oil house 2,009 lbs. 

Handled in the usual way, gives following: 

^65.28% from hot weight 
Yield in oleo stock, 1,070 lbs. = < 57.53% from washed weight 

(.53.45% from chilled weight 

MUTTON FAT. 

The fat derived in the killing of sheep is often used to 
good advantage in making mutton oleo oil. There are 
times when there is a ready sale for this oil, in which 
event it is run in the oil house by precisely the same 
rules as those laid down for the melting of beef tallow. 
The yields on mutton fat are considerably less, however, 
than on beef fat. When it is not advisable to put it into 
mutton oleo, it is nearly always advisable to make a mut- 
ton tallow, providing there is sufficient amount of the 
raw stock on hand to^ warrant it, as mutton tallow in- 
variably brings a better price than ordinary commercial 
tallow. Mutton tallow runs considerably higher in titer 
than ordinary tallow. It is also much whiter and is often 
used in the manufacture of cosmetics, etc. When made 
of the oleo oil it should be made separate from beef fat, 



162 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

as the titer qualities of mutton oleo and stearine are much 
less than they are in these products made from beef, both 
having the tendency to become rancid if held for any 
length of time. Man^^ lard refiners have discovered that 
where a complaint was made regarding the quality of 
their lard it was traceable to their oleo stearine, in which 
mutton fat had been used, this fat having a tendency to 
turn the lard rancid much earlier than where beef oleo 
stearine is used. 

COST OF HANDLING FATS IN OIL HOUSE. 

The following memorandum will cover in a general 
way the expense of handling fats in the oil house : 

Per 100 lbs. 

Labor $0.20 

Ice or refrigeration .06 

Salt 01 

Tierces for oil 17 

Tierces for stearine 06 

Total cost raw fat per 100 lbs $0.50 

KIDNEY AND COD, PICKINGS AND BONES. 

Kidney fat yields the largest percentage of stock of 
any fat in the animal. The fat in this particular part 
seems to be richer in oil and in the general handling of 
same it rarely goes into the water to absorb additional 
weight, as it is generally purchased from the retail butch- 
er after the carcass has been cut up. This in itself is 
a large branch of the business, in many places inciters 
making a practice of collecting from the butchers their 
bones, tallow and fat. The following test will give an 
idea of the yield of the different products brought from a 
butcher's shop, when used in an oleo factory or tank 
room. The prices quoted are those that were paid at the 
time tests were made. The percentages, however are 
accurate. 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 16^ 

STOCK YIELD FROM 649 POUNDS OF KIDNEY AND COD FAT. 

Stock 507 lbs., or 78.12%, at Oi/aC per lb.=$ 48.16 

Expense Pkgs., $1.45; labor, $1.27= 2.72 



Net value $45.44 

Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $7.00. 

STOCK YIELD FROM 2,004 POUNDS OF PICKINGS. 

Stock 1,124 lbs., or 56%, at 9%c per lb. =$106. 78 

Expense Pkgs., $3.83 ; labor, $5.01= 8.84 



Net value $ 97.94 

Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $4.89. 

TALLOW YIELD FROM 10,787 POUNDS OF BONES. 

No. 1 tallow 1,513 lbs., or 14.02%,, at 6%c per lb.=$ 98.34 

Stock of tankage. 1,750 lbs., or 16.22%, at $16 per ton= 14.00 

Waste 7,524 lbs., or 69.76%. 

Expense, labor 2.25 



Net value $110.09 

Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of raw bones, $1.02. 

SUMMARY. 

Per 100 lbs. 

Net value kidney and cod fat $7.00 

Net value pickings , 4.89 

Net value bones 1.02 

Net value kidney, cod and pickings combined 5.40 

Net value kidney, cod, pickings and bones combined 1.89 

The above is based on green weights. No deductions 
for steam power and administrative expenses. 

The following is the percentages of products used in 
above test: 

Per cent. 

Kidney and cod ^ 4.83 

Pickings 14.91 

Bones 80.26 



100.00 
TEST ON OLEO SCRAP. 

The following is a test on the scrap from foregoing 
test after all the oil had been extracted, which was put 
into a rendering tank and cooked for twelve hours with 
forty pounds pressure: 



Scrap to tank 

Produced tallow 1,195 28.14 

Produced pressed tankage 434 10.33 



164 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The following is an analysis of the tallow and pressed 
tankage : 

Per cent. 

Tallow, titer test 43.70 

Free fatty acids 2.50 

Pressed tankage, dry basis — 

Nitrogen 9.I6 

Phosphoric acid 4.77 

Ammonia 11.13 

Bone phosphate 10.41 

Grease 15.54 

LABOR I:N^ oil HOUSE. 

Oleo Melters. — Under this heading are classified ali 
men in the oil house necessary to handle the raw mate- 
rial, run the hashers, operate the melting kettles, and 
draw the oil into the seeding trucks. The number of men 
named in appended table in a well-regulated oil house 
should handle some 75,000 to 80,000 pounds of fat per 
day. The cost of this labor is $3.16 per hour, or $31.60 
13er day of ten hours ; the cost per 100 pounds of handling 
fat to this point, $0.0405. 

LIST OF OLEO MELTERS AND WAGES PAID. 



No. 
men 


Position 


Rate 
per hour 


Total 


1 


Foreman (^33.08 per week- 
time charged) 


-one-half 


^0.19 
.30 

.17^ 
.30 
.12>^ 
.35 
.17;^ 
.33>^ 
.17 ) 
.30 i 


^0.19 


1 


Chill vat sub foreman 


.30 


7 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 


Chill vats. 

Hashers 

Hasher chute boy 

Melter 

Melter helper 

Settling kettle 

Oil drawers 


j one 
} one 


1.33>^ 
.40 
.13^ 
.35 

.17;^ 
.32>^ 

.37 


17 




^3 16 









Oleo Presses. — Under this heading is placed all the 
men necessary for handling the stock, pressing the oil, 



TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 



165 



tiercing oil, packing stearine, and doing miscellaneous 
work about the house. The number of men specified in 
the list below should be able to handle 50,000 pounds of 
stock per day of ten hours. Cost of gang, $3.65 per 
hour ; cost of gang per day of ten hours, $36.50 ; cost per 
100 pounds of material handled, $0,075. Wages given are 
those in vogue in the large packing centers at the present 
time. 

WORKMEN AT OLEO PRESSES AND WAGES PAID. 



No. 
men 



1 
1 
8 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

21 



Position 



Foreman (^23.08 per week — one-half 

time charged) 

Clerk (^13.50 per week) 

Assistant foreman 

Wheel men 

Shaking out 

Oil drawer 

Scraping coolers 

Scrap vat 

Stearine packer 

Piling tierces 

Stock breaker 

Janitor and truck washer 



Rate 
per hour 


Total 


go. 19 


go. 19 


.32>^ 


.32^ 


.22;^ 


.23>^ 


.ll'A 


1.40 


.12>^ 


.37>^ 


.18% 


.18K 


.V.Yz 


.17K 


.llYz 


.11% 


.riYi 


.llVz 


.ny. 


.11% 


.viYz 


.ii'A 


.iiYz 


.11/2 




g3.65 



166 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PREPARATION OF HEADS AND FEET OF 
CATTLE. 

BONE DEPARTMENT. 

The bone department in the modern packing house 
is where the bones from slaughtered animals are cared 
for and prepared for commercial purposes. Nearly all 
bones that are of any value come from cattle, and to this 
department are generally sent the horns, skulls, jaws, 
feet, shank bones (from cattle that are cut up), thigh 
bones and blade bones. Other bones from the animals, 
when cut up in large quantities, are cooked for tallow, 
and afterward for glue purposes. Bones thus handled 
are over-cooked, are unsalable as a hard bone product 
and are sold under the head of " steam bone," which 
is generally used in fertilizers, and their value is cal- 
culated on a bone phosphate basis. Hard bones consist 
of those that are not cooked sufficiently to extract the 
glue, but enough to remove all grease. These bones are 
used for various manufacturing purposes and it is under 
the designation of ' ' hard bones ' ' that all the bones from 
this department are sold. They are cooked in open vats 
at a temperature of from 190° to 200° F. Excessive boil- 
ing brings the bones out in what is known to the trade as 
a " chalky condition," and greatly injures the value. 

BONE PRODUCTS. 

According to Prof. P. T. Austen, small bones are 
also converted into bone charcoal, which is largely used 



HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 167 

for the purpose of bleaching sugar and m various medic- 
inal preparations. 

Bones are used for a great variety of purposes, in- 
cluding the manufacture of bone charcoal for bleach- 
ing, empyrheumatic oils ; tallow ; black pigment for paint- 
ing, shoe blacking and tilling sheet rubber for over- 
shoes; bone dust for manure; sulphate of ammonia; 
cupels; vitrified bone for use in making opal glass, and 
in the manufacture of knife-handles, combs, fans, but- 
tons, etc. Bones also furnish gelatine and glue, and are 
the starting point for the manufacture of phosphorus. 

HOKNS. 

This is the first product of the bone department 
which we will mention, as it is one of the most valuable. 
Owing to the dehorning of cattle as well as the breeding 
of polled cattle on the range, the supply of horns has 
been greatly diminished, and whereas twenty-five years 
ago horns were worth $20 a ton they are now worth 
from $280 to $300 per ton if they are of the proper 
selections, hence it will be seen that careful and in- 
telligent handling is necessary to save this particular 
product in the best condition. The method for so doing 
is as follows : The horns after being sawed off the head 
are thrown into a vat of water that is held at a tempera- 
ture of from 140° to ISC F. After^ being exposed to 
this heat for ten or fifteen minutes they are taken out 
and by hammering the horn across some solid substance, 
or by laying it on a^ block and pounding it with a weight 
or mallet, the pith slips out. The piths are then sent to 
the dry room, where they are dried, and later used for 
the manufacture of glue. The horn itself should be put 
into a room where there is plenty of outside air circula- 
tion and not too dry. Artificial heat will cause them to 



168 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

break, which injures their sale. Horns are used for the 
manufacture of combs and various other ornamental 
articles. In the course of manufacturing the tip is sawed 
off to the hollow part of the horn. It is then split open 
and put under hydraulic steam pressure, flattened out, 
and the articles manufactured from it when in this con- 




FIG. 62.— CATTLE HEAD SPLITTER. 

dition. Any checks or flaws in the horn damage it for 
manufacturing purposes. If they are submitted to ex- 
cessive heat in drying or if they are stored in a room 
that is warm and dry they are sure to become damaged. 
It is therefore advisable to dry them in a room where 
there is circulation of air from the outside. When in 
storage they should be placed in a cellar or room where 
there is more or less moisture, but not enough to cause 
them to mold. ' 

In Fig. 62 is shown a machine which is used exclu- 
sively to split cattle heads for the purpose of taking the 



HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 169 

brains out whole. With this machine the heads are split 
after the jaws are pulled. The head is laid on the table 
with the teeth up. This knife is made with a semi-cir- 
cular space in the sharp edge which comes down over 
the brain without touching same as the balance of the 
blade is forced through the skull, leaving the brain intact 
while separating the skull bones. Where a large number 
of heads are handled in this way it saves a great deal of 
labor. It is always desirable to remove the brains be- 
fore cooking the skulls, as the bones become discolored 
if the brain is left in the skull. 

SKULLS, 

After the cheek meat has been trimmed from the 
head, the jaws pulled out, the head split and brain re- 
moved, the skull is ready for the cooking vat. Before 
being cooked, however, it should be thoroughly washed, 
as there is a large amount of clotted blood usually ad- 
hering to the skull, and if not well washed the grease 
which is derived from the cooking is discolored and in- 
jured. For the same reason the brain is removed. In 
connection with the washing, it i,s always well, when the 
vat is filled, to turn on the steam and bring the water up 
to a point where the grease does not begin to melt, and 
draw this water off. It will be found to be discolored. 
The parboiling greatly adds to the appearance of the 
fat or butter stock. The vat is then filled with water 
sufficient to cover the skulls and the steam turned on, 
bringing the temperature up to 190° to 200° F. After 
that the steam should be graduated so as to hold the 
temperature at above point eight and one-half or nine 
hours, when the heads will be found to be cooked suffi- 
ciently, so that all meat and grease will fall off. The 
skull is then put through a revolving washer with a 



170 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



spray of warm water which will wash off all the meat 
and refuse left hanging to them, and they are then ready 
for the dry room. They should be dried for about 
twelve hours at a temperature of 110° to 120° F. accord- 
ing to the facilities for drying, when the bones are 
ready for shipment. 

JAW BONES. 

Jaw bones should be handled practically in the same 




FIG. 63.— BONE SAW WITH IRON FRAME. 

way as skulls, except that they should be cooked from nine 
to ten hours. 

FEET. 

In the handling of the feet the first consideration is 
to see that they are not allowed to become dry on the 
killing beds. They should be removed from the beds 
as fast as cut off, as there is always considerable blood 
and dirt accumulation on them. It greatly adds to their 
appearance and to the facility with which they can be 



HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 



171 



handled if they are put through a revolving washer and 
all the manure and dirt thoroughly washed off. The 
next operation is to skin off the cords on the front and 
back of the legs, this being used for glue purposes, care 
being used not to cut too deep into the heel of the foot, 
it being preferred to leave some glue stock on the foot 
rather than to cut too deep and remove the fat which 
goes to make up the neatsfoot oil which is much more 
valuable than the glue stock. After the glue stock has 




FIG. 64.— BONE SAW WITH WOOD FRAME. 



been removed the foot goes to the bone saw (see Figs. 
63 and 64), where the knee end of the l^eg is first cut off, 
cutting back just far enough to expose the marrow. The 
piece thus cut otf goes in with the bones known as the 
knuckles. 

The shin bone is next cut off from the foot near 
enough to the joint to barely expose the marrow. The 
front shin bones are termed " flat shins," and the hind 
bones " round shins." These are used in the manu- 
facture of bone ornaments and articles. Round shin 



172 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

bones should be cooked five hours at a temperature of 
from 180° to 190° F. ; flat shin bones should be cooked 
six hours at a temperature of 190° F. After they are 
thoroughly cooked they should be allowed to stand for 
about an hour and the grease which is used in the neats- 
foot oil should be carefully skimmed off into an ordinary 
tank. After the bones are thus cooked they should be 
thoroughly washed, and are then ready to be dried. 

Where this work is done in sufficient volume, a very 
practical device may be used which is a revolving rack, 




FIG. 65.— REVOLVING RACK FOR BONE WASHING. 

illustrated in Fig. 65, into which the bones are placed and 
tumbled for about an hour. Any loose pieces of meat 
that may adhere to the bones are thus removed and by 
sprinkling them continuously with hot water while re- 
volving it has the effect of polishing the bones and they 
come out of the tumbler in a very smooth condition, look- 
ing much better than if they were hand-washed. After 
this the bones should be placed on racks on the floors to 
be air dried, a room with a temperature of 70° to 90° 
F. being sufficiently warm. If excess heat is used on 



HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 



173 



these bones they will ' ' check ' ' which damages them ma- 
terially. After they are thoroughly dried they should be 




FIG. 66.— POAVER HOOP PULLER. 



stored in a bin, in a room where the temperature does 
not exceed 80° F. 

The balance of the foot, after the shins are cut off, 
next goes to a scalding vat, the temperature of the water 




FIG. 67.— HAND HOOF PULLER. 



being from 150° to 170° F. After they are sufficiently 
scalded the hoof is pinched off, either by hand, or by a 
machine designed for that purpose. Two practical ma- 
chines for this purpose are shown in Figs. 66 and 67. 



174 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The feet are then put into a vat and cooked, the bones 
thus obtained being classed as ^' knuckle bones." They 
are cooked at a temperature of 200° to 210° F. for nine 
hours. After they are thoroughly cooked they should 
be given an hour to settle, when the oil is taken off and 
the bones put through a revolving washer where they 
are thoroughly cleaned and sent to the dry room to be 
dried, after which they are ready to be marketed. 

NEATSFOOT OIL. 

This is a product which requires very careful hand- 
ling and thorough drying out, as any moisture left in 
this oil tends to injure it and cause an excessive amount 
of free fatty acid. The oil, after being skimmed from 
the vats, should go into a receiving tank which is jack- 
eted ; the steam should be turned on and the oil brought 
up to a temperature of 210° to 215° F. and ten to fifteen 
hours allowed for settling. The bottom should then be 
drawn off, as all the water and impurities will settle, 
after which the steam should be turned on again and 
the oil brought up to a temperature of 240° to 250° F. 
and held there for one or two hours, this having the 
effect of drying it, evaporating all the moisture. After 
it has been iillowed to stand until it has cooled down to 
a temperature of 80° to 90° F. it can be put in tierces. 
The drying feature in handling this oil is very essential 
to its production in a satisfactory condition for the trade. 

SINEAV GLUE STOCK. 

This part of the product, after having had plenty of 
time to drain the water out of it as much as possible, 
should be taken to a cool, although not necessarily re- 
frigerated room, and thoroughly salted. It is often 
found necessarv to overhaul it and resalt it in order to 



HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 



175 



keep it from " sweating." After it has been cured ten 
days or two weeks it is ready for the glue department. 
The following test shows the average yield from head 
and feet of 130,470 cattle, same based on the market 
prices prevailing at the time the test was made. While 
prices vary the percentages given are accurate. 

AVERAGE YIELD OF HEAD AND FEET ON KILL OF 130,470 CATTLE. 



Product 


Yield 
per cent 


Market price 


Value 


per ton 


per gal. 


per lb. 


per head 


Skulls 


4.079 

2.289 

2.641 

1.744 

.147 

.456 

1.198 

.956 

.518 

1.061 

3.580 

.698 

1.072 

1.899 

1.730 

1.160 

.650 

1.068 


$18.00 
18.00 
18.00 
22.00 
50.00 
21.00 
42.00 
30.00 

200.00 

19.00 
16.00 




$0.03 
.03 
.03 

"!o6k 
"!62k 

.OQH 


$0.0367 


Jaws 


$0 


.64 


0206 


Knuckles.. 


0237 


Hoofs 


.0191 


Hoofs, white 

Piths 

Round shins 

Flat " , . 

Horns 


.0036 
.0047 
.0251 
.0143 
.0518 


Neatsfoot oil 


.0905 


Cheeks 


1074 


Head meat 


0294 


Fine " 


.0321 


Sinews 


0180 


Tallow 


1167 


Tankage 

Brains 


.0092 
.0146 


Head oil 


.0726 








Total value 




\ 


1 


$0.6901 



176 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



^ CHAPTER IX. 

PREPARATION OF CASINGS. 

DESCRIPTION OF CxVSINGS. 

Casing is a product made from the intestines of cat- 
tle, sheep and hogs, when they are slaughtered in quan- 
tities sufficiently large to warrant the care and attention 
required. Before the advent of the modern packing 
house this was one of the products which was entirely 
lost where animals were slaughtered on a small scale. 
It is a product worthy of a great deal of consideration 
and careful attention must be given to its production 
in order to have it turned out in a good, marketable con- 
dition. 

Casings consist of round or small guts, middle or 
large intestines, bungs, weasands and bladders, these 
being the different descriptions of casings that are ob- 
tained from slaughtered cattle. 

THREE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN HANDLING CASINGS. 

First. — Good, clear water. 

Second. — That they be handled promptly and not al- 
lowed to accumulate and lie around, as they become dis- 
colored, and the color of casings has much to do with 
their value. 

Third. — That the man cleaning them does not use 
water too hot so as to injure them, and that they be 
turned out with as many whole pieces as possible. These 



PREPARATION OF CASINGS 177 

points being followed closely will aid greatly in the gen- 
eral results. ;, 

As fast as the casings are cleaned they should be 
measured into sets of 108 to 110 feet each. A standard set 
of rounds is supposed to measure 100 feet, but the larger 
measure is alloX^red as in the salting and curing they 
shrink so that when measured, as above given, they will 
not exceed 100 feet when salted. A set of rounds should 
not have to exceed five holes, or consist of more than 
live pieces, the less the number of either holes or pieces 
the more desirable. 

After they are thus measured they are thrown into a 
salting box, where they are shaken up by hand so as to 
make all the salt possible adhere to them; the casings 
being wet the salt adheres readily. They are then 
thrown into an old barrel which is bored full of holes, 
or else piled up in an open truck, so that all the water 
possible will drain off. After \ymg in this condition for 
a day they are taken up and resalted and packed into 
tierces, 210 sets to the tierce, ready for shipment. It is 
necessary, in order to get in this amount of casings, to 
use pressure and press them ip very tightly, glucose 
packages being used for this purpose. 

Casings are put up for export and domestic purposes, 
the export rounds being reasonably narrow and abso- 
lutely free of knots. The knots referr^ed to are small 
abrasions on the sides of the intestines which are 
often found in the entrails of native cattle, or cattle 
that have been highly fed, these knots being looked 
upon as objectionable in the foreign trade. The color 
of the casing, if properly handled, should be of a reddish 
tinge, and the smell absolutely sweet. The casings, after 
they are packed, should be put in cold storage, where 
the temperature ranges from 38° to 45° F., and should 



178 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




PREPARATION OF CASINGS 179 

be watched occasionally to see that the liquor is not al- 
lowed to leak off, as it injures them to become dry, 

CLASSIFICATIOlSr OF CASINGS. 

Ronnd Casings. — These are first run off from the ruf- 
fle or fat, care being taken in running them that they are 
not cut and that as little fat is left on them as possible. 
This casing should be taken out in two pieces, it being 
impracticable to leave full lengths on account of the 
danger of tearing it in removing the contents. After 
they are cleared of the contents, they are put through 
the fatting machines (Fig. 68), or if no machine is used 
are scraped by hand, removing all the fat that adheres 
to them. It is essential that all the fat on the casings 
should be removed, as it is much more valuable than the 
casings themselves and is detrimental if left on. After 
they have been " fatted " they are put into a vat of 
water and '' turned," which process turns them wrong 
side out, exposing the internal part of the intestine. This 
is then put through the sliming machine, which removes 
all the membrane. This operation is sometimes done by 
hand. "When this work is completed it is only the muscu- 
lar portion of the intestine that remains. After they 
are thus finished they are measured, inspected, tied into 
bundles and put into the first salting. After remaining 
one or two days in the salt they are resalted and packed 
into tierces. 

Domestic Rounds. — These are rounds used for do- 
mestic trade in this country. They are wider and heavier 
than those exported and it is not considered essential 
that they should be absolutely free from knots. They 
are handled the same, however, all the way through, and 
are packed from 150 to 170 sets to the tierce, the differ- 
ence in the number of the sets indicating that they are 



180 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

wider casings and not as carefully selected as the ex- 
ports, which are packed 210 to the tierce, the number of 
sets indicating, to some extent, the quality of the goods. 
Beef Middles. — After the ruffle has been pulled off 
from the intestines on the gut bench, the middles are 
pulled out, leaving on all the fat that will adhere to them. 
The contents of the intestine is washed out and the gut 
then goes to the fatter, who cuts off all the fat with a 
knife. It is a very important part of the work to see that 
no fat is left on the casing, as the next operation is to turn 
it inside out; any fat which may be left on the casing 
cannot then be removed, and will detract very much 
from the appearance of same when used for sausage 
purposes. After these casings are thoroughly cleaned 
they are measured 62 feet to the set, allowance being 
made for shrinkage in salting, so that after they have 
been salted they will measure 57 feet, this being the 
commercial length required. These are handled on the 
salting benches, etc., the same as rounds. They are 
selected as follows : They must be of prime quality, 
properly cleaned, slimed and salted, closely fatted, free 
from holes, good color and smell, no piece to be less than 

3 feet in length, not more than one such piece in a set, 
and the thin end of the gut must be cut off. They should 
be assorted in accordance with requirements into — 

Narrows packed 140 sets to the tierce 

Wides " 95 " " " 

Regulars (which means the run 

of the house) " 110 " " " " 

Beef Bungs. — These consist of the end of the large 
intestine, which is cut off an average length of about 

4 feet, which will vary according to the size of the 
cattle. The opening where the small intestine connects 
with the large should be in the center. These are han- 



PREPARATION OF CASINGS 181 

died and packed the same as tlie casings heretofore 
described. 

Bungs, handled practically the same as the pre- 
viously described casings, must be of good quality, full 
length, jDroperly cleaned, slimed, salted and fatted, free 
from holes, reasonably free from scores and cuts and of 
good color. The regular run of these casings should 
be packed 400 pieces to the tierce, tied in bundles of five 
each. 

Beef Bladders. — Bladders should be cut with a long 
neck and after they have been fatted should be blown up 
as large as possible and hung in a dry room to dry. 
After they are blown and dried, the necks are cut off 
and they are flattened out and packed in bundles of 
twelve each. The first grade consists of bladders 14 
inches in length, with or without necks. The second 
grade consists of bladders from 11 to 13 inches in length 
with the neck. The third grade consists of bladders, 
with or without necks, not under 9 inches in length. 

Beef Weasands. — After the meat has been trimmed 
from the outside the weasand is turned wrong side out, 
washed, both ends tied, and blow*n full of air. After they 
are blown with air pressure they are hung in a dry 
room, which should have a temperature of 110° to 120° 
F., and left there until thoroughl}^ dried. They are then 
taken out, the ends cut oif , the weasands ^put into bundles 
of twenty-five each, twenty bundles tied together into a 
large bundle, five or ten of these large bundles constitut- 
ing a case. Regular weasands must be of prime quality, 
properly dried, entirely free from worms, and at least 
24 inches long, allowing not over four pieces of shorter 
(same to be at least 18 inches long) to the bundle of 
twenty-five. Two of such short ones will be counted as 
one full weasand. 



182 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Narrow weasancls are those which, while being dried 
have a weight of about four pounds hung on the end, 
drawing them out as long as possible, which has the 
tendency to make them narrow. These should not be 
blown as full of air as those that are not thus handled. 
After they are dried they must be at least 26 inches long 
and from 2 to 2y-_> inches in width when flattened out. 
Other conditions same as the regular weasands, except 
that they must be entirely free from skin worms and 
skin-worm marks. 

Bung Gut Skins. — From the bung gut is often re- 
moved the outside membrane, known as the " bung gut 
skins." These are used by gold beaters. They are 
handled as follows : The bung gut skins should be 
started at the cap end, being careful to remove the skin 
for about 4 to 6 inches from the end of the cap, then re- 
move same around the bung end, back of the cap end 
first, and next take off toward the open end, after the 
bung is skinned back as far as possible beyond the small 
intestine. These skins are very thin and difficult to re- 
move; there is no difficulty experienced, however, in get- 
ting them 30 inches or over in length, if properly han- 
dled. After the skin is removed it is placed in a pail of 
ice water, and, when well chilled, is salted thoroughly in 
the cap and outside. The object of putting the skin in 
ice water is to facilitate handling. 

After they are thoroughly salted they are hung over 
a bar covered with a piece of burlap and allowed to hang 
for one or two days, until they are thoroughly drained, 
or dried. When dry each skin is separately handled, the 
loose salt shaken off and examined for holes and fat 
and ragged ends. Holes near the edge of the skins can 
be cut out without materially injuring them. All fat on 
the edge and ragged ends should be cut off. After the 



PREPARATION OF CASINGS 183 

skins have passed this inspection they should be spread 
full length and width on a table, one over the other, 
gathered in bunches of fifty, tied in the center and 
packed in a tierce. Care should be taken in handling 
the skins not to let them come in contact with any iron 
that will produce rust or discolor them. Many casing- 
men object to removing the bung gut skins, believing 
that it injures the casing. If they are handled care- 
fully, however, the injury will not be more than 5 per 
cent. 

YIELD OF CASINGS. 

Beef Rounds. — The length of these varies in the an- 
imal from 90 to 130 feet. In the finished product, under 
proper management, they should run about 102 or 103 
sets of rounds per 100 cattle. 

Middles. — The length of these in the animal varies 
from 18 to 35 feet, the former measurement in young 
cattle, the latter in old. Tlie average should be from 
thirty-eight to thirty-nine sets of middles per 100 head 
of cattle. 

Bungs. — Bungs if handled carefully should yield 
from 95 to 98 per cent. Weasands and bladders the 
same. 

The average cost per head for labor of cleaning and 
handling beef casings should be about I31/5C to 14c per 
head of cattle killed. 

The salt used for salting casings is a medium fine 
grain evaporated salt. 



184 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER X. 

THE TANK HOUSE. 

coisrsTRUCTioisr and operation of a tank house. 

This department is almost an innovation which came 
in with the modern packing house. When packing was 
done promiscuonsly throughout the country, sufficient 
offal was not collected at any one point to necessitate a 
tank house, and consequently, in a small way, open ket- 
tles were used with either a fire under them, or jacketed 
for steam, and the best of the tallow was thus rendered, 
while all of the offal was thrown away, it being impos- 
sible to render offal to any advantage under these con- 
ditions. For this reason the tank, or ' ' digester " as it 
is called by many, was evolved. It consists of a very 
strong, tight tank, which is usually operated under forty 
pounds steam pressure, giving a temperature of nom- 
inally 280° F., this high temperature having the effect 
of thoroughly disintegrating all the parts that go into 
the tank, and liberating all the grease. The residue from 
cooking in this manner, after being thoroughly pressed. 
is dried and sold as fertilizer. The effectiveness of this 
process is shown, for instance, by the fact that if a hun- 
dred cattle heads are put into a tank, after the cooking 
nothing is found of them except the teeth, the bones 
being entirely disintegrated. 

Probably few departments of the packing house 
need closer attention than the tank house. It is not an 



THE TANK HOUSE 



185 



inviting place and consequently does not ordinarily re- 
ceive the attention necessary to get the best results. 

After the material has been cooked and allowed to 
settle, the greases are drawn from the side of the tank, 
as far as possible, and the remaining contents dropped 
into a vat where the mass is as thoroughly skimmed as 
possible of all grease. It is then put into the hydraulic 
presses where what grease is left is pressed from it. 

It is only within the past few years that much atten- 
tion has been paid to tank house construction, but it is 




PIG. 69.— LONGITUDINAL SECTION MODERN TANK HOUSE. 

found that a building properly designed for this purpose 
saves a great deal of expense and labor,^ and as the labor 
in this department is expended largely on the less val- 
uable material, such as the fertilizer, it is found advan- 
tageous to build correctly. Figs. 69 and 70 present sec- 
tional views of a modern tank house. It will be seen that 
the tanks are high enough from the floor to give sufficient 
room for the scrap vats, and under the scrap vats ample 
room is left to run the press carriages, so that the ma- 
terial can be drawn directly from the scrap vat into the 



186 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



presses. It was formerly allowed to fall to the floor and 
was shoveled into the i^resses. 

In Fig. 71 is given a sectional view presenting details 
of a rendering tank and the method of supporting same 
with iron construction. Tanks for this purpose have to 
be put up very rigidly as the tank is very heavy in it- 
self and contains upward of 20,000 pounds weight when 
iilled. The tank shown in the illustration is known as 
the ' ' drop gate ' ' type and the segments which form the 
false 'bottom of the tank are put in in such a way that 




FIG. 70.— CROSS SECTION MODERN TANK HOUSE. 



their own weight holds them in place, as may be noted in 
the view shown. The false bottom put in is perforated 
and the steam for cooking the contents is admitted at 
the bottom of the tank under the plate, thereby giving 
the steam a chance to permeate the entire mass. With- 
out a device of this kind the steam is liable to find its 
way up on the side of the tank, heating the tankage in 
some places and leaving it cool in others, in which case 
the material sours. This false bottom also aids in draw- 



THE TANK HOUSE 



187 




FIG. 71.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF REJ^DERING TANK. 



188 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 





THE TANK HOUSE 



1S9 



ing the water out of the tank during the process of cook- 
ing, preventing the solid matter from stopping up the 
outlet. 

Fig. 72 presents an outline view of a scrap vat, to-' 
gether with valves, gates, etc., such as is now in general 
use in modern packing house plants. 

A feature which is of great advantage to the life of 
the tanks, is the cast iron head (Fig. 73). It was for- 
merly the practice to put in the tank a head made either 
with segments or dished, extending from 4 to 12 inches 




FIG. 73.— DETAIL OF CAST IRON HEAD FOR RENDERING TANK. 

above the floor. In order to work with any degree of 
comfort around these tanks it was necessary to have the 
floor fit tight to the side of the tank, which being the case, 
the water and residue worked in between the tank and 
the floor and invariably damaged the tank all the way 
around where the floor came in contact with it, so that it 
was rendered unsafe long before it was otherwise worn 
out. If a space is left between the floor and the side of 
the tank, the water and refuse will run down on the tank 
and cook onto the sides until it becomes very offensive. 



190 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



Therefore on the side of the head is placed a flange, 
which goes completely around the tank, having a dis- 
charge at the lowest point, so that any water which may 




FIG. 74.— DETAILS OF MAN-HOLE HEAD AND CRAB. 

seep through between the floor and the tank is caught in 
this gutter and runs off into the vats, thereby leaving 
the tanks perfectly clean and avoiding the offensive 



THE TANK HOUSE 191 

odor which would otherwise be developed in the tank 
room by the continual seepage on the hot tanks. It also 
saves the tanks very materially from the wear and tear 
which is caused by rusting. 

In Fig. 74 is shown details of the man-hole head and 
crab used with this cast iron head. 

HOW TO COOK A TANK. 

After the tank has been thoroughly cleaned, draw 
in about two hogsheads of water, for a 7 x 14 foot tank, 
or a proportionate amount for tanks of other sizes, 
turn on the steam, bring the water to a boil and then 
begin filling the tank. Allow sufficient steam to enter 
to keep the tank boiling continuously. When the tank is 
two-thirds full, shut off the steam, draw off the water 
and put in about as much more cold water; again turn 
on the steam, bringing the contents to a boil the second 
time. Do not fill the tank to exceed three-fourths full, 
as the cooking is better done if sufficient room is left at 
the top for the '' roll." After cooking for a half hour, 
draw off the water a second time. 

It will be found, especially ii\ cooking freshly killed 
matter, that the water thus drawn off is very dark col- 
ored, as it carries with it a large amount of blood and 
dirt that has accumulated on the tissues. If this is not 
drawn off it has the effect of darkening th^ lard or tallow 
very materially. 

After the water has been drawn off the second time, 
put in the tank head afid turn on the steam, the conden- 
sation from the steam being sufficient to cook the mate- 
rial; no more water is needed. See that the blow-off 
and escape pipes are shut and the pet-cock is open. Con- 
tinue cooking in this manner until a moderate pressure is 
secured on the tank, then set the safety valve at' forty 



192 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

pounds, open the blow-off valve leading to tlie safety 
valve wide, open the escape valve just enough so that 
you may know the gas is escaping, and shut the pet- 
cock. At the completion of this operation the cooking 
of the tank begins. A tank of tallow should cook thor- 
oughly in from nine to ten hours with forty pounds 
pressure. 

Oftentimes freshly killed material will be found to 
lie closely together and a " cold spot " will be found in 
the tank — a spot where the material has become partially 
solidified and the steam has not penetrated. In such 
case, if the tankman will shut off the steam, draw off all 
the water, and then turn on the steam, the cold spots will 
disappear. " Cold spot " has the effect of souring lard 
and tallow; in other words before the heat has pene- 
trated into the solid mass, the heat surrounding it will 
have caused it to sour. This is a point that should be 
closely watched, especially in tanking lard. 

Tankmen should try the pet-cock on the tank each 
half hour to find out if the tank is " flush." If the 
tank is ^ " flush ' ' or foaming, the foam will come out in- 
stead of steam. In this case shut off' the tank ten min- 
utes, then draw off the water, but see that no grease is 
drawn off with it. The cause of the flushing, or foaming, 
is that the tank is too full, or that there is too much 
water in it, consequently it is necessary that the tank- 
in an should try his pet-cock very often during the opera- 
lion of cooking to see that the contents is being properly 
cooked. 

The material from catch basins (which consist of 
pockets in the sewers where any grease or fats may be 
caught that otherwise escape through the sewer) and 
partially cooked stuff from different departments 
should be handled very promptly and gotten into the 



THE TANK HOUSE 193 

tank as soon as possible, as the stuff quickly decomposes 
if allowed to lie about, and the longer it is out of the 
tank, and the more decomposition takes place, the more 
free acid it will develop. 

After the tank has cooked about ten hours, shut off 
the steam and open the pet-cock of the tank for about 
ten minutes, then open the escape valve, being careful 
i3ot to give it too much escape at first, or the tank will 
'^ roll." By this is meant that the extreme heat of the 
material will generate steam, which, as soon as the press- 
ure is relieved, will cause the material to ' ' raise ' ' or boil 
very violently, but if the pressure is removed from the 
tank slowly, this condition will not appear. When a tank 
has ' ' rolled ' ' it takes a great deal more time to settle it, 
the grease being thoroughly mixed up with the residue 
of the tank. As the pressure dies down the tankman can 
increase the blow-off. 

When the pressure is off the tank, take out the head 
and use about a water-pail full of fine salt in settling 
the tank. This salt thrown in and scattered around in 
the tank has the effect of carrying with it sediment and 
tissue which may be held in suspension. The tank should 
stand about two hours before running off the fat, which 
gives it a chance to become thoroughly settled. Draw 
off the fat from the side valves of the tank, as clean as 
possible, into coolers. It is often necessary, in doing 
this, to raise the contents of the tank, as there may be 
considerable tallow or lard below the lowest draw-off 
valve. Such being the case run water into the bottom of 
the tank sufficient to raise its contents so that all the ren- 
dered fat will have a chance to escajie through the low- 
est valve. 

In places where the tank water is saved, it is always 
advisable to have some of this water in a vat above the 



194 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



FIG. 75.— HYDRAULIC LARD AND TALLOW HOOP PRESS. 



THE TANK HOUSE 195 

tanks, so that when they need raising, it can be done by 
simply drawing this tank-water into the bottom of the 
tanks. When handled in this manner, it saves putting 
additional fresh water into the tanks, which will later on 
have to be evaporated. 

After the fat is drawn out of the tank, the residue is 
dumped into the scrap vat. Anything that has not been 
thoroughly cooked will float on top in the vat. These 
floaters should all be skimmed off and put back into the 
tank to be re-cooked. The tankage, after being thor- 
oughly agitated with a pole or rake, should be cooked 
for about ten minutes with live steam, then it is allowed 
to settle and the grease is skimmed off the top. The 
skimmings thus obtained all go back into the tank for 
the next cooking. In taking off the skimmings take as 
little water as possible with them. As soon as the oper- 
ation of the skimming of the vat has been thoroughly 
accomplished the contents are in the proper condition 
to be pressed and should be handled while still hot. 

PKF.SSING TATifKAGE. 

Different types of presses are used in dift'erent 
methods; for instance, many small killers, where their 
offal is not saved, will use an open kettle, either fire or 
steam heat, in which to render their tallow and lard. In 
material thus treated, when thorougMy cooked, the 
scrap will rise to the top of the oils and is very hard and 
crispy. A hoop press is used for this material, into 
which the scrap is forked and pressed, the oil or grease 
oozing out through the perforations on sides of the press 
(see Fig. 75). Where the material is cooked in a tank, 
under pressure, the residue is left in an altogether dif- 
ferent form, it being entirely disintegrated and so mixed 
with the water that it has to be pressed in cloths between 



196 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



press racks, for which an entirely different press is re- 
quired (see Fig. 76). 

In the latter case when the material in the vats has 
been thoroughly skimmed it is handled in press cloths, 




FIG. 76.— HYDRAULIC TANKAGE AND FERTILIZER PRESS. 

which consist of a very heavy grade of burlap made 
especially for this purpose. In building such a press a 
rack made of 1 x i/j. inch material, usually elm, thor- 
oughly riveted together, is first laid on the press head. 
Next a frame of the size and depth required to handle 



THE TANK HOUSE 197 

the different plates is used. The press cloth is then 
spread over them and the material drawn onto the 
press. After sufficient material has been drawn to make 
the plate 4 or 5 inches in thickness and well spread 
out, the cloth is carefully folded over the top of it. The 
form is then lifted off the press, another press rack is 
put on top of the plate already made, and the process 
repeated. Ten or twelve plates are generally used to 
a press. Plates should not be made too thick, for if the}^ 
are it is impossible to press the grease out as thoroughly 
as it should be. 

After the press is filled it is run into the hydraulic 
press proper and pressure applied. This should be done 
slowly at first, giving the water ample time to run out 
of the press. If the pressure is run up too fast the 
tendency is for the material to slide out on one side or 
other of the press, but if the water is pressed out slowly 
the material adheres better or gets a good " bond," so 
that it will not slip. 

After the press has run until the cakes are about 
one-half of their original thickness turn on a hose with 
hot water, thoroughly washing off the sides of the press. 
Then turn on more pressure until this reaches about 300 
tons on a 5 X 5 foot plate. It will be found that it is the 
last pressing which brings out the grease. 

Where tankage is properly handled it should run 
from 11 to 14 per cent of residual grease on a dry basis, 
Where improperly handled it will oftentimes run from 
18 to 20 per cent, the excess being lard or tallow which 
should have been saved, but worthless if left in tankage. 

When the fat is drawn from the tank it should first 
be run through a catch basin, which will retain any 
floaters or pieces of tissue which may come out with the 
fat from the tank. It then overflows to a receiving vat, 



198 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

where it is allowed to settle. It is unwise to have any 
coils in receiving vats for either lard or tallow, as it in- 
terferes with the cleaning of the vats, and when steam 
is turned into the coils it has a tendency to discolor the 
fat. 

If receiving vats are simply set on the coils, sufficient 
heat will be obtained in the vat to warm the material at 
any time and at the same time not burn it. The vat 
should be set sloped toward one corner. From this 
corner the draw-off pipe, through which the fresh prod- 
uct is drawn out for tiercing or other use, should extend 
from 2 to 3 inches into the vat, thus avoiding the draw- 
ing of au}^ bottoms. Another opening should be just 
level with the bottom of the vat through which all water 
and residue can be drawn off and sent back to the tank 
to be re-cooked. Before drawing off the grease all water 
and residue should be drawn out of the lower pipe, and 
what is left in the vat after it has been drawn out of the 
pipe extending through the bottom should always be 
taken back to the tank and re-cooked. 

TANK WATER. 

In the cooking of different materials in tanks under 
pressure, the tank water is really the condensed steam 
used in the cooking, and is very rich with the sediment 
and the juices of material cooked, running as high as 8 
and 10 per cent solids. The sediment obtained by evapo- 
rating this tank water is known to the trade as " con- 
centrated tankage," which runs from 15 to 16 per cent 
ammonia and is consequently a valuable by-product when 
saved. 

Under the head " How to Cook a Tank," attention 
is called to the advisability of using tank water '' to 
raise the tank " when drawing off the tallow or greases, 



THE TANK HOUSE 199 

tlms avoiding an unnecessary amount of fresh water, as 
the fresh water must all be evaporated if put in with 
the tank water. After the tankage has been dumjoed 
into the scrap vats and all the grease skimmed off, the 
tank water should be drawn off into a separate vat ; it is 
then ready for treatment. The '' press water," which 
is the water from the pressing of the tankage, should 
also be caught and placed in the same vat. The material 
at all times, however, should be kept hot, for if it is al- 
lowed to cool off a decomposition sets in which renders 
it unprofitable to handle. The temperature should 
never be allowed to go below 160° F. 

There are several methods of utilizing this product. 
It being of a peculiar nature, the animal salts, which are 
left to a large degree when it evaporates, soon draw 
moisture unless neutralized. For instance, it may be 
evaporated and dried to a powder, but unless it is prop- 
erly treated it will turn to a liquid form in storage, or 
when exposed to the air, becoming about the consistency 
of coal tar. In that condition it is valueless. 

One method of converting this product into a mer- 
chantable article is to reduce the tank water in vacuum 
pans to a consistency of about 28° to 30° Baume, as it 
comes from the vacuum pans. It is then pumped into a 
'^ mixer " made of cast iron, equipped with heavy cast 
iron paddles, and to 800 pounds of this evaporated water, 
or " stick," as it is now called, are added 175 pounds of 
cooked and pressed beef blood, 25 pounds of raw 60- 
degree sulphuric acid, and 120 pounds of chemical. 

The chemical referred to is made as follows : Take 
a lead-lined vat holding about 200 gallons ; into this put 
about 160 gallons of 60-degree sulphuric acid, adding 
water enough to make the solution about 12° Baume. 
Into this solution throw old scrap iron of any descrip- 



200 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tion and allow it to stand until the solution will dis- 
solve no more iron. It is then pumped into a shallow 
lead-lined vat with lead coils, and evaporated to about 
40° Baume. It is next drawn off into barrels of fifty gal- 
lons each and to each barrel forty pounds of black oxide 
of manganese are added and thoroughly mixed. 

After the tank water has been thoroughly treated 
with this chemical, and the other materials mentioned, 
in the mixer, it is ready to go to the drying ovens. These 
consist of ovens through which heat is forced artificially, 
the ' ' stick ' ' being put into pans about 14 x 20 inches in 
size and 4 inches deep. Into each pan is put about ten 
pounds of this wet " stick." After it has been dried 
for about twenty-four hours the pans are dumped, the 
'' stick " going through a breaker, and it is then ready 
to be ground and shipped. 

The above method of drying ' ' stick water ' ' has been 
largely superseded in the last few years by using instead 
a roller heated with steam (Fig. 77), Much greater 
economy in operation, for labor as well as for repairs, is 
secured by means of this machine. The acids used in 
neutralizing the animal salts in the water are very detri- 
mental to all kinds of wrought iron, the pans and ovens 
eating out very rapidly. This machine is made of cast 
iron rollers, revolving at about eight to ten revolutions 
per minute. The evaporated stick is put on the roller 
at a consistency of about 30° Baume, a thin film of this 
material sticks to the roller and before it gets around 
to the scraper the internal heat of the cylinder has dried 
it and the scraper at the bottom of the roller scrapes 
it off. ' 

When dried the product is known to the trade as 
'' concentrated tankage " and sells on an ammonia 
basis. In arriving at a value of products thus sold, an 



THE TANK HOUSE 



201 



analysis is made showing the unit or percentages of 
anunonia in the product. The price of the product per 
ton is then regulated by the price per unit according to 
the analysis. 

Example: — Blood analyzing 16 per cent ammonia, 
and selling at $2.00 per unit, would mean that the blood 
was worth $32.00 per ton. A higher or lower analysis 
would increase or decrease the price. Concentrated 




FIG. 77.— DOUBLE " STICK " DRYER. 



tankage sells usually from fifteen to twenty-five points 
less than blood on this basis. It should run between 
1414 and 16 per cent ammonia. 

Another method of treating the tankage, and one 
more generally used, is to mix the tank water directly 
with the tankage, after the former has been reduced to 
25° Baume, the mass being dried in regular steam 
dryers. The addition of the tank water, of course, has 



202 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

the effect of increasing tlie ammonia in the tankage, 
thereby enhancing its value. Before the tank water 
can be used in this manner, however, it is essential that 
it be treated with chemicals, otherwise when the tankage 
containing this " stick " is dried it will, very soon after 
exposure to the air, become pasty and unsalable. 

The method of treatment is as follows : The tank 
water, after being run off from the tanks, is held in a 
large vat or vats for from ten to twenty-four hours, at 
a temperature of 180° F., for the purpose of getting all 
the grease possible out of the water. It will be found 
that after allowing the water to stand for some time at 
this temperature, quite an amount of grease will rise 
upon it. The different vats of tank water are then tested 
with a Baume hydrometer and for every 2,000 gallons 
of tank water at indicated degree, Baume, ordinary 
commercial copperas should be added as follows : 

Water testing 5° Baume 166 lbs. dry copperas 

41/2° " 150 " " 

4° " 133 " " 

31/2° " 117 " " 

3° " 100 " " 

These varying amounts of copperas are put into a 
barrel of hot water and thoroughly stirred until dis- 
solved. The solution is then poured into the vat of tank 
water, the mass allowed to stand six or eight hours, and 
then skimmed off before being pumped to the evaporat- 
ing machine. It is there reduced by evaporation to a 
densit}^ of 30° Baume, when at a temperature of 180° 
F. It is next pumped into a storage vat so situated that 
it will gravitate onto the feeder of the dryer. 

After the tankage has gone through the picker the 
^' stick " is admitted to the regular tankage, the two 
going into the dryer together. The " stick " at this 
point, which is about the consistency of cold molasses, 



THE TANK HOUSE 



203 



mixes readily with the ground tankage. In ordinary 
practice not to exceed 70 per cent of the '^ stick " pro- 
duced from the tank water may be utilized in the fer- 
tilizer in this manner. If either of the above methods 
is used, a great saving is effected by thus handling this 
particular product, instead of letting it run out to the 
sewer, as is generally the case, especially in the smaller 
packing houses. 

In order to realize the value of this product the 
reader is referred to the copy of a test, made by an ex- 
pert, on a plant handling about 5,000 cattle and 5,000 
hogs per week, as follows : 



ESTIMATE OF THE PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF TANKAGE 

MADE BY EVAPORATING TANK WATER. 

TEST FOR AMOUNT OF WATER DRAINED OFF VATS BEFORE PULLING TANKAGE. 



Tank 


Product 


Gallons 


Av. 

gallons 


No. 
No. 


1 
1 

o 
2 
3 
3 

4 

6 

9 

10 

10 

11 
11 


Prime tallow (cutting room bones, etc.) . . 
Prime tallow (bed fat, etc. ) . 


1,445 
1,734 


1,589 


No 


1,645 
1,365 
1,426 

1,827 




No 






No 


(I i( (1 It 




No, 


it 1 ( a a ^ 


1,566 


No 


No, 2 tallow (catcbbasin stuff) 


668 
905 
562 
624 

847 




No 


Pluck tank 




No. 
No. 

No 




735 


No 


r ■ 

Prime steam lard 


1,382 
1,248 




No. 




1,315 











TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES TANKS FILLED AND COOKED. 
Product. No. Tanks 

Prime tallow with cutting room bones 6 

Prime tallow with bed fat, etc 10 

No. 2 tallow 6 

Pluck tanks 13 

Prime steam lard 6 

Total .41 



204 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

BASIS FOR ESTIMATE OF PRODUCTION. 



No. of 
Tanks 


Average 

contents 

gals. 


Total con- 
tents gals. 


Solids 
per gal. lbs. 


Total solids 
lbs. 


Per cent 
Ammonia 


Units of 
Ammonia 


6 
10 

6 
13 

6 


1,589 

1,566 

668 

735 

1,315 


9,534 

15,660 

4,008 

9,555 

7,890 


0.88 

1.03 
.399 
.763 
.0481 


8,390 

16,130 

1,599 

7,390 

380 


16.76 
16.89 
14.59 
16.85 
16.00 


1,406 

3,734 

333 

1,338 

61 






46,647 




33,789 


16.73 


5,653 



Total units of ammonia per tank, 5,652. Average units of 
ammonia per tank, 16.73. 8 per cent of moisture, dry basis. 

This production at $1.66 per unit would be worth 
$27.77 per ton, or the yearly production would bring 
$24,396.32. 

Figuring the production of tankage to be 66,000 
pounds per week and that with this could be mixed 
through the dryer 600 pounds or 107.3 gallons of " stick," 
25° Baume with each ton of dry tankage — then thirty- 
three times 600 pounds, or 19,800 pounds, would be the 
limit of production from the tank water. 

The regular tankage runs on an average of 10 per 
cent ammonia and 16.4 bone phosphate, and as shown 
above the production from the tank water with 8 per 
cent moisture would run 16.73 per cent ammonia. The 
product would therefore consist of the following: 



Materials 


Weight 
pounds 


Per cent 
Ammonia 


Units 
Ammonia 


Per cent 
Phosphate 


Units 
Phosphate 


Regular tankag-e 

Evaporated tank wa- 
ter 


66,000 
19,800 


10.00 
16.73 


6,600 
3,313 


16.4 


10,834 






Total production .... 


85,800 




9,913 




10,834 



Analysis, ammonia 11.55%, bone phosphate 12.62% 
Value per ton $19.93, or for the yearly production, $44,459.84. 



THE TANK HOUSE 



205 



Should there be added worthless material sufficient 
to reduce the percentage of ammonia to 10, the follow- 
ing formula would apply: 



Materials 


Weight 
pounds 


Per cent 
Ammonia 


Units 
Ammonia 


Per cent 
Phosphate 


Units 
Phosphate 


Regular tankage 

Evaporated tank wa- 
ter 


66,000 

19,800 
13,320 


10.00 
16.73 


6,600 
3,312 


16.4 


10,824 


Worthless material. . . . 




Total production .... 


99,120 




9,912 




10,824 



Analysis, ammonia 10%; bone phosphate 10.92%. 
Value per ton $17,251^, or for the yearly production $44,468.32 



RECAPITULATION. 

Debit. Credit, 

Value of total production for one year. . $44,468.32 

Value of tankage for one year $30,030.00 

6 per cent interest on $10,000 investment 600.00 
15 per cent depreciation on $10,000 in- 
vestment 1,500.00 

Additional labor, five men, "full time"... 2,340.00 34,470.00 

Net profit on investment $ 9,998.32 



It will be noted from the recapitulation of this test 
that a depreciation of 15 per cent was allowed as well as 
6 per cent interest on the investment, and at the same 
time it shows that $10,000 could be saved annually on a 
product which prior to that time had be^n running into 
the sewers. 

After a careful study of the tables and recapitulation 
as given above, any packer can compute the loss that he 
is actually sustaining by comparing the figures given with 
the volume of business which he is doing, and it will read- 
ily be seen that here is a product that is wasted in many 
cases that would yield handsome returns if handled as 
described. 



206 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The percentage of solids and liquids, as well as the 
respective weights in tank water at different degrees 
Baume, are shown in the following table: 

TABLE FOR TANK WATER. 



Degrees 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Baume 


solids 


water 


cubic foot 


gallon 


1 


1.90 


98.10 


62.14 


8.30 


2 


3.83 


96.17 


62.46 


8.34 


3 


5.77 


94.23 


62.79 


8.39 


4 


7.77 


93.23 


63.11 


8.43 


5 


9.85 


90.15 


63.43 


8.47 


6 


11.93 


88.07 


63.91 


8.54 


7 


14.04 


85.96 


64.41 


8.60 


8 


16.19 


83.81 


64.89 


8.67 


9 


18.38 


81.62 


65.38 


8.73 


10 


20.60 


79.40 


65.81 


8.80 


11 


22.71 


77.29 


66.39 


8.87 


12 


24.84 


75.16 


66.92 


8.94 


13 


26.97 


73.03 


67.44 


9.01 


14 


29.11 


70.89 


67.97 


9.08 


15 


31.27 


68.73 


68.49 


9.15 


16 


33.55 


66.45 


69.05 


9.23 


17 


35.88 


64.12 


69.61 


9.30 


18 


38.22 


61.78 


70.17 


9.37 


19 


40.59 


59.41 


70.72 


9.45 


20 


42.98 


57.02 


71.28 


9.52 


21 


45.11 


54.89 


71.89 


9.60 


22 


47.24 


52.76 


72.79 


9.68 


23 


49.37 


50.63 


73.09 


9.77 


24 


51.50 


48.50 


73.70 


9.85 


25 


53.63 


46.37 


74.30 


9.93 


26 


56.31 


43.69 


74.95 


10.01 


27 


59.04 


40.96 


75.60 


10.10 


28 


61.80 


38.20 


76.25 


10.19 


29 


64.61 


35.39 


76.90 


10.27 


30 


67.54 


32.46 


77.55 


10.36 


31 


70.34 


29.66 


78.35 


10.46 


32 


73.27 


26.73 


78.94 


10.55 


33 


76.24 


23.76 


79.64 


10.64 


34 


79.25 


20.75 


80.33 


10.73 


35 


83.21 


17.79 


81.00 


10.83 



SERIES OF TESTS OlST TANKITSTG. 

The following is a series of tests showing yield of 
various materials cooked in tank: 

TEST ON TRIMMINGS AND SEAM FAT. 

Trimmings and seam fat taken from 327 pieces of 
tripe (2,060 pounds finished plain tripe) to determine 
value to tank. 



THE TANK HOUSE 207 

Weight to test tank 1,300 pounds, value $1,273 per 
100 pounds. Cooked in test tank four hours at forty 
pounds pressure. 

Yield of No. 1 tallow. .21.92%; 285 lbs. @ $5.60 per cwt. $15.96 
Yield tankage 5.15%; 67 lbs. @ 17.50 per ton .59 

Total value $16.55 

TEST ON CONDEMNED HOGS— YIELD OF GREASE. 

Condemned hogs to tank 954 lbs. 

Yield of white grease 467 lbs. 48.95% 

Yield pressed tankage 173 lbs. 18.13% 

Yield dry tankage 86 lbs. 9.01% 

On the above the leaf lard was left in and heads off. 

COMPARATIVE TEST OF SHEEP HEADS AND JAWS TO TANK AND BONE HOUSE. 

325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks 

off) to tank 765 lbs. 

Yield to tallow 73 lbs. @ $ 0.06 per lb. $4.38 

Yield dried tankage 150 lbs. @ 19.00 per ton 1.42 

Total value $5.80 

Value, per head, $0.0178; tallow, 9.54%; dried tankage, 19.47%. 

325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks 
off) to bone house. .... .765 lbs. 

Yield to tallow 51 lbs. @ $ 0.07 per lb. $3.57 

Yield dried bones 177 lbs. @ 18.00 per ton 1.59 

Total value $5.16 

Value, per head, $0.0159; tallow, 6.66%; dried bones, 23.14%. 

TEST ON TRIPE TRIMMINGS. 

Green weight to tank ^ 1,206 lbs. 

Yield prime tallow , . 356 lbs. 29.52% 

Yield tankage 53 lbs. 4.39% 

TEST ON CONDEMNED LIVERS. 

Green weight to tank 1,010 lbs. 

Yield No. 2 tallow ^ 42 lbs. 4.16% 

Yield pressed tankage 206 lbs. 20.38% 

Yield dry tankage 103 lbs. 10.19% 

TEST ON C.i.TTLE PECKS TO TANK. 

Green weight to tank 1,306 lbs. 

Yield No. 2 tallow 16 lbs. 1.22% 

Yield tankage 95 lbs. 7.27% 

TEST ON CATTLE PAUNCHES TO TANK. 

Green weight to tank 1,056 lbs. 

Yield prime tallow 94 lbs. 8.90% 

Yield pressed tankage 106 lbs. 10.04% 

Yield finished tankage 53 lbs. 5.02% 



208 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

TEST ON HOG STOMACHS TO TANK, UNTRIMMED. 

Killed, 240 pigs and 836 hogs, a total of 1,076. 

Green weight to tank 2,845 lbs. 

Yield prime steam lard 1,275 lbs. 44.81% 

Yield finished tankage 188 lbs. 6.60% 

TEST ON WINDPIPES TO TANK. 

Green weight to tank 880 lbs. 

Yield No. 1 tallow 141 lbs. 16.00% 

Yield tankage 33 lbs. 3.75% 

TEST ON SHEEP PAUNCHES AND PLUCKS TO TANK. 

(Trimmings from sheep house.) 

Green weight to tank 1,150 lbs. 

Yield No. 1 tallow 105 lbs. 9.13% 

Yield pressed tankage 89 lbs. 7.73% 

Yield dry tankage 45 lbs. 3.86% 

TEST ON SHEEP (OFFAL). 

Green weight to tanks 28,680 lbs. 

Yield tallow No. 1 4,538 lbs. 2.28 lbs. per head 

Yield tallow No. 2 730 lbs. .37 lbs. per head 

Yield tankage 2,893 lbs. 1.46 lbs. per head 

TEST ON NECK TRIMMINGS FROM KILLING FLOOR. 

Green weight to tanks 880 lbs. 

Yield No. 1 tallow 397 lbs. 45.11% 

Yield dry tankage 49 lbs. 5.56% 

TEST ON SHEEP FEET TO TANK. 

Green weight to tank 1,170 lbs. 

Yield No. 2 tallow 40 lbs. 3.42% 

Yield dry tankage 148 lbs. 12.65% 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 209 



CHAPTER XL 
BEEF TRIMMINGS. 

PICKLING FORMULA. 

In the slaughtering of live stock in large numbers 
there is a great accumulation of trimmings which has 
to be cured for the sausage room or canning department, 
as the case may be. The following formula will serve 
for the curing of beef, pork and sheep cheek meat and 
hearts, hanging tenderloins and other meats for sausage 
and canning purposes. 

To 1,100 gallons of seventy-degree pickle dissolve 
seventy-nine pounds saltpetre. Use this pickle for the 
curing of beef cheek meat, pig s^iouts, pork cheek meat, 
sheep cheek meat, ox-lips, beef hearts, etc. This ma- 
terial is usually cured in vats and should be overhauled 
in five, fifteen and thirty days after being packed. (The 
above pickle costs about three quarter^ of a cent per 
gallon.) 

WEASAND MEAT. 

This is a meat which is taken off the weasands. It is 
a low grade of meat and is at times ^' tanked " rather 
than saved, when trimmings are cheap. When saved it 
should be packed in tierces, and to a tierce of 400 pounds 
sprinkle thoroughly through same, when packed, a mix- 
ture of twenty pounds of salt and one pound of saltpetre. 



210 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The goods should be held in storage at from 37° to 40° 
F. during the process of curing. 

BEEF TONGUES. 

This is a part of the animal which it is very essen- 
tial should receive careful attention from the time it is 
taken out of the head, until it is cured. The tongue 
should be left perfectly smooth on the bottom, leaving 
on all the fat. When it is taken from the head it should 
be cut close to the jaws, taking off with it all the fat pos- 
sible, as it is worth much more on the tongue than if left 
on the head. After the tongue has been thoroughly 
washed in water of from 70° to 80° F. (washing off all 
the blood and saliva), it should be hung in a cooler on a 
small hook at the point where it is cut off from the jaw, 
the point of the tongue also being put on the same hook. 
This gives the tongue a compact appearance, but if it 
is hung up by the point alone when warm, its own weight 
stretches it out of shape, and it never looks as well as 
when hung as described. 

Tongues should be hung in a temperature of from 
34° to 38° F. for forty-eight hours, after which they are 
trimmed, according to size and demand, into either long 
or short cuts. " Long cut tongue " means that the gul- 
let and about two joints of the windpipe are left on. In 
•'short cut tongue •' the gullet is entirely cut away. Long 
cut tongue should average not less than five pounds in 
weight. When thoroughly chilled they are ready for 
curing. They should first be put into a plain pickel, 
eighty degrees strong, at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. 
for twenty-four hours. This is done to remove all the 
saliva from the tongue, which has the effect of making 
the pickle '^ strong," if the tongues are put direct into 
the curing pickle. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 211 

After treatment with plain pickle they are put into a 
sweet pickle to be cured, the sweet pickle consisting of 
280 pounds of salt, English salt being preferable, to 
which is added ten pounds of saltpetre and twenty-four 
pounds of sugar to each 160 gallons of water. This 
should be stirred well to insure thorough dissolving of 
the ingredients. The tongues are then put into barrels, 
hogsheads or vats, as the case may be, and sufficient 
pickle put on to submerge them. At the end of tive days 
they should be shifted from one package to another, and 
at the end of fifteen days they should be re-handled, this 
being done to bring the pickle into thorough contact 
with the different pieces. Tongues should be fully cured 
at the end of thirty days, ready to smoke, or for ship- 
ment. When tongues are packed in barrels, after being 
fully cured, they should be packed, 202 pounds to the 
barrel, filling the package up with the same pickle in 
which they were cured. They are then ready for ship- 
ment. 

The trimmings from the tongue, after being chilled, 
should be retrimmed, as there is considerable fat on 
these trimmings that makes good No. 2 oleo oil. 

As there is an increased demand for tongues in the 
warm months over any other part of the year, where they 
are produced in large quantities, it is very advantageous 
to hold them frozen until the demand for them develops. 
In freezing them it is necessary that the}^ should be put 
in a very low temperature and frozen quickly, as if han- 
dled otherwise it has a tendency to give them an unde- 
sirable color when cured. 

In some instances it is advisable to freeze tongues, 
holding them in this condition until there is a demand 
for them, when they can be thawed out, cured, and 
smoked as required. The following test will give an ac- 



212 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

curate yield of tongues thus handled, showing the per- 
centage of shrinkage, freezing, curing and smoking: 

TEST ON FREEZING BEEF TONGUES. 

Lbs. Per cent. 

Weight of twenty-five 5%-lb. beef tongues to freezer. .140 
In freezer one week — weight 138 

Freezing shrinliage 2;= 1.43 

Tal^en from freezer to leacher — weight 138 

Leached twenty hours in city water — weight 144 

After leaching, drained twelve hours — weight 142 

Gain leaching from frozen to drained weight.... 4= 2.90 
Gain leaching from green to drained weight 2:;= 1.43 

After leaching — pickled — weight to pickle 142 

Rubbed in salt and packed in bbls. with seventy-deg. 
pickle to remain for forty-five days; overhauled 
in forty days, and five days later dumped at 

forty-five days weight 141 

Drained eight hours — weight 139 

Shrinkage from green to cured — drained weight. 1= 0.71 
Shrinkage from leached to cured — drained weight 3= 2.11 

Weight from cellar to smoke house 139 

Smoked fifteen hours — average temperature, 116° F. 
— smoked weight 117 

Shrinkage to smoked from green weight 23=16.43 

Shrinkage to smoked from leached weight 25=17.60 

Shrinkage to smoked from cured weight 22=15.82 

CANNING TONGUES. 

Canning tongues are tongues usually taken from light 
cattle, and from which all the fat is trimmed. The bones 
are removed from the gullet, leaving nothing but the 
lean part of the tongue for canning purposes. 

The following tests will show the cost of converting 
'■^ long cuts " into " short cut tongues " and " canning 
tongues," indicating that the heavier the tongues the less 
they are worth for canning purposes, for in trimming, 
the depreciation is less on light tongues than on heavy 
ones. As will be noted, in each instance the trimmings 
are worth less than the original tongue ; therefore it 
increases the price of the trimmed product, as shown in 
the second line of each test: 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 213 



TEST NO. 1. 

Converting long cut tongues, average four pounds, into short 
cut tongues: 

Ten long cut tongues 40% lbs. @ $0.09% $3.9731 

Ten short cut tongues 34% lbs. @ .1127 

Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02^4 .0675 

Fat 1 lb. @ .021/2 .0250 

Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO^^ .0100 

$0.1025 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 

$0.0555 
Cost per pound of short cut tongues, $0.1127. 
The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: 

Ten short cut tongues 34% lbs. @ $0.1127 $3.9163 

Ten canning tongues 23% lbs. @ .1573 

Lean trimmings 4i/^ lbs. @ .02% .1012 

Fat 5 lbs. @ .021/2 .1250 

Bones li^ lbs. @ .OO14 .0075 

$0.2337 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0530 

$0.1807 
Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1573. 

TEST NO. 2. 

Converting long cut tongues, average four and one-half 
pounds, into short cut tongues: 

Ten long cut tongues 451/2 lbs. @ $0.09% $4.4362 

Ten short cut tongues 38 1^ lbs. @ .1137 

Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02% .0675 

Fat 1^ lb. @ .021/2 .0250 

Bones 3 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0150 



$0.1075 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 

$0.0605 
Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1137. 
The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues : 

Ten short cut tongues 38i^ lbs. @ $0.1137 $4.3774 

Ten canning tongues ^ 26% lbs. @ .1578 

Lean trimmings 41/2 lbs. @ .02% .1012 

Fat 51/2 lbs. @ .021/2 .1375 

Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 

$0.2487 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0530 

$0.1957 
Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1578. 



214 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

TEST NO. 3. 

Converting long cut tongues, average five pounds, into short 
cut tongues: 

Ten long cut tongues 501/^ lbs. @ $0.10i4 $5.1762 

Ten short cut tongues 43 lbs. @ .1191 

Lean trimmings 314 lbs. @ .02i^ .0631 

Fat 1 lb. @ .021/2 .0250 

Bones ^Vz lbs. @ .OOyg .0125 

$0.1006 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 



$0.0526 
Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1191. 
The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: 

Ten short cut tongues 43 lbs. @ $0.1191 $5.1213 

Ten canning tongues 10 lbs. @ .1633 

Lean trimmings 414 lbs. @ .O214 .1012 

Fat 614 lbs. @ .021/2 .1563 

Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 

$0.2675 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat. 0530 

$0.2145 
Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1633. 

TEST NO. 4. 

Converting long cut tongues, average five and one-half 
pounds, into short cut tongues: 

Ten long cut tongues 541/2 lbs. @ $0,111/2 $6.2700 

Ten short cut tongues 46i/4 lbs. @ .1340 

Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02% .0675 

Fat 114 lbs. @ .021/2 .0312 

Bones 4 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0200 



$0.1187 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 



$0.0717 
Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1340. 
The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: 

Ten short cut tongues 46i4 lbs. @ $0.1340 $6.2000 

Ten canning tongues 33 lbs. @ .1800 

Lean trimmings 4% lbs. @ .02% .1068 

Fat 61/2 lbs. @ .021/2 .1625 

Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 



$0.2793 
Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0540 



$0.2253 
Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.18. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS iil5 

LIVERS. 

There is no edible part of the animal which becomes 
stale and out of condition as quickly as the liver, it be- 
ing, naturally, a very large percentage water, and only 
by the most careful attention will they keep a very 
great length of time unless they are frozen. The vital 
point in handling livers successfully is to keep them dry. 
In all large houses where many cattle are slaughtered 
a special truck is used for conveying livers promptly 
from the killing beds. 

Complete details of the truck described above are 
shown in Fig. 78 on the following page. 

As soon as they are taken from the animal they 
should be trimmed, care being taken that in cutting the 
gall bag from the liver they are not contaminated with 
the gall, and that they are placed in a cooler as quickly 
as possible. This is the only piece of meat, in the 
author's estimation, that should be subjected to an arti- 
ficial circulation of air. 

They should be allowed to hang in the air current for 
twenty-four hours at a temperature of from 33° to 36° 
F. and, before being exposed tq the outside temperature, 
should be thoroughly wiped, removing any moisture that 
may be left on the outer surface. If the livers are thus 
carefully treated it will be found that they will stand 
exposure and keep in good condition piuch longer than 
they otherwise would. 

At certain times of the year it is profitable, when 
there is a limited demand for livers, to freeze them for 
the winter trade. AVliere this is done it will be found 
that if they are first properly dried and chilled, they 
freeze in much better condition than if put into the 
freezer when they are full of moisture. They should be 
frozen at a temperature as near zero F. as possible, for 



216 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




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BEEF TRIMMINGS 217 

if frozen quickly they retain tlieir natural color, where- 
as, if they are put into a higher temperature and the 
freezing is delayed, they will have a dark appearance 
when thawed out. Many packers make a practice, in ship- 
ping livers, to sprinkle them with powdered borax, this 
having a tendency to prevent them from becoming wet 
and out of condition, but it greatl}^ injures their appear- 
ance, and if they are handled properly in the first place 
it is generally an unnecessary precaution. 

DEFROSTING EOOM. 

Wherever meats are frozen in order to hold them 
for future use it is ver^^ important that the best method 
possible be used in thawing out or defrosting them. If 
the meat is simply placed in a warm room without any 
special air circulation, the frost, as it comes out of the 
meat, condenses the moisture in the air upon its surface, 
leaving it wet and giving it a very unattractive appear- 
ance, the meat turning dark; whereas if the meat is 
thawed in a room properly equipped for this purpose, it 
comes out with a bright, attractive appearance, and only 
the trained eye of an expert could tell whether the meat 
had been frozen or not. ^ 

An approved design for a modern defrosting room is 
shown in Fig. 79. Above the room where the meats are 
stored is a brine loft for the refrigerant, which may be 
either ice and salt, exposed brine, brine pipes, or direct 
expansion. In the thawing room proper is built a skele- 
ton table, the top being covered with galvanized iron. 
Beneath this table should be located pipes through which 
steam may be admitted. The heat, rising, comes in con- 
tact with the metal top of the table, which, being an excel- 
lent conductor, imparts it to the meat placed thereon. 
"With the refrigeration above and the heat from the steam 
coils below a very rapid circulation of air is produced in 



218 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



the cooler. The warm, moist air rising from the meats 
deposits its moisture on the pipes, leaving the surface of 
the meats dry. This room should be held at a tempera- 




rRknc 



Ta5lC 

W/TH GalvX 



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COV^RCP 

xMiz^D Iron 



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FIG. 79.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DESIGN FOR A MODERN 
DEFROSTING ROOM. 



ture of 42° to 46° F. Eibs and loins can be defrosted in a 
room of this kind in from eight to twelve hours, and will 
come out looking bright, firm and fresh and as there is 
always a difference of from one cent to three cents a 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 219 

pound, according to the demand either for frozen or fresh 
meats, it is obvious that it greatly enhances the values 
of the meat if it is properly frozen and properly de- 
frosted. It is only within the last few years that the 
great advantage of handling frozen meats properly has 
been realized. 

SWEETBREADS. 

This is a delicate piece of meat and practically the 
only one in the packing house that improves by being 
kept in water. The sweetbread should be cut out when 
the animal is stuck, thereb}^ avoiding the danger of their 
becoming bloody and discolored. After they have been 
washed and all fat trimmed otf , they should be put in ice 
water in the coolers and there held over night; the next 
day they are ready for shipment and should be packed 
in cracked ice. 

If they are to be frozen they should be allowed to 
drain properly before placing them in the freezers. A 
low temperature is very essential for the preservation of 
sweetbreads, as well as for livers, in order to have them 
come out with the best possible appearance. When 
frozen quickly they retain a bright, clean appearance 
when thawed out. If they are frozen slowly they turn 
to a slate color when thawed out and have a very unde- 
sirable and unwholesome look, which materially operates 
against their being disposed of to advantage. 

Western or range cattle yield a ver}^ small proportion 
of sweetbreads, they being undeveloped by the animal 
when living in their natural state. Cattle which have 
been fattened in feed lots, howev^er, yield very much 
larger sweetbreads. 

BEEF HEARTS. 

This piece of meat is of small value and is generally 
used in sausage and canning, largely in the former. The 



220 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

hearts after being taken from the animals are trimmed 
and washed and should be hung in a cooler where there 
is a temperature of from 34° to 38° F. After they are 
thoroughly chilled they are used for sausage purposes, 
either fresh or cured. 

TAILS. 

There is little to be said on the handling of tails, 
except that they should be kept clean, for if handled 
carelessly and allowed to become stained it is impos- 
sible ever to get them clean afterward, and it is always 
preferable not to wash them, as this has a tendency to 
discolor them when chilled. If they are to be frozen 
they should be put into the freezer under a low tempera- 
ture in order to have them come out in the most desir- 
able condition. 

BEEF HAMS. 

"Where cattle are cut up in large quantities it is nearly 
always impossible to sell the rounds fresh, there being 
comparatively small demand for round steak. It is, 
therefore, necessary to work up this particular part of 
the meat into some other product, which is done by mak- 
ing what is known as " beef hams," whenever the rounds 
are of proper weight. The very lightest rounds, or 
rounds out of canning cattle, are generally used for can- 
ning purposes, they being too light to suit the trade for 
'' beef hams." 

STRIPPING BEEF HAMS. 

In preparing '* beef hams " the rounds are cut off 
from the cattle by what is known as the ' ' packing house 
cut," which leaves a larger piece of meat from the rump 
on the round, as compared with the ordinary cut. This 
piece is what is known as the " knuckle " piece of the 
rounds. Eounds cut this way are considered regular. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 22 L 

When rounds are stripped that were cut for market 
they are known as short knuckled rounds and are not 
accepted by the trade as regular. 

From the knuckle of the round, before it is stripped, 
is removed the fell, or covering, this being skinned off, 
and the seam of the knuckle followed around by the 
knife, cutting clear to the bone. The round is then hung 
on a hook and an incision made just .above the stifle joint 
and the knuckle piece peeled otf from the bone. The 
round is then turned on the hook and opened clear to the 
bone, making what is known as the " inside-and-outside 
piece " of the round. 

In opening the round what is known as the '' kernel 
fat " should be equally divided. The round is then 
stripped off, leaving the coarse meat on the shank. These 
three pieces are what is known as regular beef hams 
when packed in sets. When separated thej are known 
as " insides," " outsides " and " knuckles." These 
hams, before being marketed, are cured and smoked and 
are sold at retail for what is known as dried beef, the 
largest sale for this particular kind of meat being in 
warm weather. ^ 

On the manner in which beef hams are cured depends, 
to a great extent, their sale, as the object in curing is 
to have them not too salty, thoroughly cured through, 
and of a bright and attractive color when smoked. There 
are different methods of curing but the following method 
and formula are used in the largest plants in this coun- 
try for the curing of this product. 

METHOD OF HANDLING AND FORMULA FOR CURING BEEF HAMS. 

The hams when cut from the cattle should be either 
spread out or hung up in a room held at a temperature 
of from 33° to 35° F., for twenty-four hours, thereby in- 



222 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

suring the elimination of all animal heat. They are then 
best cured in vats holding 1,000 pounds each; many, 
however, cure them in tierces or barrels. 

The formula for the pickle used is as follows: For 
1,500 gallons of SO-degree strength pickle, add 300 
pounds granulated sugar, 105 pounds saltpeter and 
twenty-five pounds borax. Where a smaller amount of 
pickle is wanted make it proportionate to above. When 
the meat is packed in vats, as it is being thrown in 
sprinkle in a little fine salt. The vat should then be 
filled with above pickle and a rack or weight j)ut on the 
top to keep the meat submerged. The hams should be 
overhauled three times, first in ten days, again twenty- 
five days later and again forty days after the second 
overhauling. Beef hams should be considered fully 
cured in from seventy-five to eighty-five days. If cured 
in tierces or barrels, these should be rolled at the same 
periods as in the case of the vats, giving the pickle a 
thorough chance to get at all parts of the meat. 

Another formula which is used very extensively by 
some of the largest packers where beef hams arc packed 
and cured exclusively in barrels, is as follows : Dissolve 
150 pounds of saltpetre in hot, 88-degree pickle, 
made from Ashton or '^ Perfect " dairy salt, a sufficient 
amount of pickle being used to make fifty-two gallons 
when dissolved. It is necessary to heat the pickle in 
order to dissolve this amount of salt. Add 450 pounds 
of granulated sugar and sufficient cold 88-degree pickle 
to make 200 gallons of the finished solution. This 
is then chilled to a temperature of 40° to 45° F. 
One gallon of this solution is put into each barrel before 
commencing to pack the meats. 

When packing the meat in barrels, use twenty-three 
pounds of Ashton, or " Perfect " dairy salt, sprinkling 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 223 

same between the layers as they are put in. When the 
barrel is packed and coopered, fill with water at a tem- 
perature of 40° to 45° F., barrels to be rolled in ten, 
thirty and fifty days after being packed. They should 
be stored in a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. if they 
are to be used in ninety days. If they are to be held for 
five or six months they should be kept at a temperature 
of 35° to 39° F. for the first thirty days and thereafter 
at a temperature of from 28° to 29° F. until used. Meats 
cured with this formula will be found to have a very good 
color and flavor and at the same time will not be too 
salty. In putting the meat in packages, pack 215 pounds 
green weight per barrel. The following is a smoking 
test on regular beef hams : 

REGULAR OUTSIDES FOR SHIPMENT. 

Packed Wt. lbs. Per cent. 

Twenty-three tcs. dry packed 449 lbs. 

each, marked weight 440 lbs. each. 1,127 pes. 10,327 
Twenty-three tcs. dumped to smoke, 

actual weights 1,127 pes. 10,215 

Pounds loss while in storage 112 

Per cent loss while in storage .0128 

Culls not smoked 44 pes. 235 

Actual weights to smoke 1,083 pes. 9,980 

Smoked weights 1,083 pes. 7,099 

Shrinkage in smoking 2,881 

Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2887 

Smoked 108 hours, temperature 112° to 128° F. 

REGULAR INSIDES FOR SHIPMENT. 

Sixteen tcs. dry packed, 449 lbs. each, \ 

marked weight 440 lbs. each 497 pes. 7,184 

Sixteen tcs. dumped to smoke, actual 

weights 497 pes. 7,027 

Pounds loss in storage 157 

Per cent loss in storage .02119 

Culls not smoked 8 pes. 73 

Actual weights to smoke 489 pes. 6,954 

Smoked weights 489 pes. 5,351 

Shrinkage in smoking 1,603 

Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2304 

Smoked ninety-six hours, temperature 112° to 124° F.' 



224 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

REGULAR KNUCKLES FOR SHIPMENT. 

Packed. Wt. lbs. Per cent. 

Eight tcs. dry packed 408 lbs. each, 

marked weight 400 lbs. each 389 pes. 3,264 

Eight tcs. dumped to smoke, actual 

weights 389 pes. 3,190 

Pounds loss in storage 74 

Per cent loss in storage .0227 

Culls not smoked 1 pc. 4 

Actual weights to smoke 388 pes. 3,186 

Smoked weights 388 pes. 2,388 

Shrinkage in smoking 798 

Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2505 

Smoked ninety-four hours, temperature 112° to 128° F. 

A great deal of dried beef is put up in glass jars 
under a vacuum, as well as in tin cans. Beef handled in 
this manner is cured b}^ same formulas as given hereto- 
fore, but in smoking it is handled somewhat differently, 
being smoked less and dried more, it being necessary to 
have all the pickle and moisture evaporated from the 
meats in order to insure keeping. 

After the meat has been handled as described it is 
generally put in smoke houses equipped with steam coils, 
the heat brought up to 110° to 120° F., and left to dry 
from three to four days. It then shows a shrinkage any- 
where from 35 to 42 per cent. It is absolutely necessary 
to dry beef in this manner in order to make it keep sat- 
isfactoril}^ when put in cans. 

The following test will show the shrinkage of this 
product when smoked in tlie manner described above for 
canning purposes : 

SHRINKAGE ON SMOKED DRIED BEEF HAMS. 

Packed. Wt. lbs. Per cent. 

Thirty-two tcs. beef hams four months 

old, weight to smoke 1,461 pes. 12,542 

Smoked weight 1,461 pes. 7,254 

Shrinkage in smoking 5,287 

Per cent shrinkage in smoking 42.15 

Smoked eleven hours; temperature 112° to 139° F.; hanging 
in house to dry, seventy-two hours. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 225 

PLAIIST PICKLE FOEMULA. 

The following formula will be found to turn beef out 
in very nice shape and with a good color. This is for 
plate beef, rump butts, briskets, clods, and all trimmings 
of a similar character : 

To 1,500 gallons of 100-degree strength pickle add 
ninety-eight pounds saltpeter. It will be found neces- 
sary to dissolve the saltpetre before putting it into the 
pickle. 

FORMULA FOR PRESERVATIVES. 

The following formula for a preservative is used 
very successfully on fresh meats to prevent mold. It 
can also be used in boxing fresh meats for freezer, to aid 
in preserving: 

7 pounds salt. 
251/^ pounds sulphate soda. 
55 pounds borax. 
12y2 pounds boracic acid. 

This should be thoroughly mixed, in a powdered form. 
For cheek meat or other trimmings, which it is desired to 
hold fresh as long as possible, use two and one-half 
pounds to 100 pounds of meat. Eight ounces of 
the mixture to 100 pounds of meat, in pork sausage, will 
greatly aid in the keeping. 

Beef cuts which it is desired to keep fresh, if dipped 
into a solution of this mixture, equal to two pounds of 
the powder to each gallon of water, wilL be found to re- 
tain their fresh appearance. It will also aid in the pre- 
vention of mold. 

TRIPE. 

Tripe is an article for which there is a large demand 
in the eastern and New England states, comparatively 
little of it being consumed in other states, while there is 
not a very great foreign demand. It is made frpm the 



226 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

stomachs of cattle and is a very wholesome and nutri- 
tious dish. Fresh tripe is often ordered by doctors for 
patients convalescing from typhoid fever, on account of 
its being so nutritious and easily digested. 

The stomach, after being emptied of its contents and 
thoroughly washed, is put into a small kettle, or vat, 
and scalded, the temperature of the water being from 
140° to 1G0° F. After a few minutes immersion the in- 
side lining of the stomach may be easily removed. When 
sufficiently scalded it is scraped, leaving a clean, white 
surface. After the scraping it is put into a boiling vat 
and boiled for about three hours, or until it is tender. It 
is then put into cold water and after being chilled, the 
fat from the seams is all removed and the '^ finishing 
process " begins by first scraping off all the loose fat 
v/ith a sharp scraper and then removing a membrane on 
the outside of the stomach, which, when worked care- 
fully, comes off, leaving the " tripe " perfectly clean 
and free of any fat, etc,^ — the tripe being the muscular 
part of the stomach. 

The tripe, after being thoroughly cleaned, is ready 
for the pickling cellar. It should first be put into a 45- 
grain white wine vinegar pickle for ten to fifteen hours. 
After it has been submitted to the first pickling it is ready 
to be put into barrels and the vinegar in which it was 
first pickled should be strengthened with full-strength 
vinegar, making it again 45-grain, when it is packed in 
barrels and should be held in a temperature of from 45° 
to 50° F. 

There is a remarkable gain in tripe if it is properly 
handled. A barrel of tripe packed at 135 pounds, at the 
end of three weeks, will weigh out 200 pounds and some- 
times as high as 215 pounds. This is because the tripe 
absorbs the vinegar, and it is very essential in storing 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 227 

tripe that it be kept at a temperature where this absorp- 
tion can take place, for if it is kept in too cool a tempera- 
ture it will not take up the vinegar as it should, conse- 
quently the gain will not be found when the package is 
opened. The following test will show the gain in a bar- 
rel of honey-comb and a barrel of plain tripe, one barrel 
of each being packed in 45-degree vinegar and one barrel 
of each in 60-degree vinegar: 

TEST PACKING TRIPE HOT DIRECT FROM FINISHING TABLE. 

Lbs. Per cent. 

One barrel honey-comb, 45-degree vinegar, 95 pes. 

packed weight 125 

Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight 227 

Gain 102 = 81.60 

Drained over night on racks, weight 183 

Loss draining from pickled weight 44 := 19.38 

Gain to drained weight from packed weight 58 = 46.40 

One barrel honey-comb, 60-degree pickle, ninety- 
three pes. packed, weight 125 

Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight 227 

Gain 102 r= 81.60 

Drained over night on racks, weight 194 

Loss draining from pickled weight 33 ^ 14.53 

Gain to drained weight from packed weight 69 — 55.20 

One barrel plain, 45-degree pickle, thirty-nine pes. 

packed weight 125 

Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight. 193 

Gain 68 = 54.50 

Drained over night on racks, weight 182 

Loss draining from pickled weight. . 11 = 5.70 

Gain to drained weight from packed weight 57 =z 45.60 

One barrel plain, 60-degree pickle, thirty-eight pes. 

packed weight 125 

Held in cellar two weeks and unpacked, weight.. 201 

Gain 76 = 60.80 

Drained on racks over night, weight 184 

Loss draining, from pickled weight 17 = 8.45 

Gain to drained weight from packed weight 59 r= 47.20 

Temperature all pickle when put on tripe 65° F. Tempera- 
ture cellar, from 50° to 52° F. 

The following test shows the cost of 100 tripe, in- 
cluding packages and vinegar: 



228 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

TEST ON 100 TRIPE FINISHED. 

100 regular bellies 2,053 lbs. average weight 20.53 lbs. 

Honey-comb 400 lbs. " " 4.00 lbs. 

Plain 1,653 lbs. " " 16.53 lbs. 

Debits: 

5 barrels .$0.80 each = $4.00 

75 gallons 45-grain vinegar... .02^/^ per gallon = 1.88 

100 bellies 1309 each = 13.09 

Labor and expense 1.08 per cwt. finished = 7.13 

Total '. $26.10 

Credits: 

Scrapings to tank 312 lbs. 

Yield tallow 15 lbs. $0.0525 per lb. $0.79 

Yield dry tankage 75 lbs. 14.00 per ton .53 

Trimmings to tank 200 lbs. 

Yield tallow 8 lbs. .0525 per lb. .42 

Yield dry tankage 5 lbs. 14.00 per ton .04 

Seam fat — finishing bench 83 lbs. 

Yield oil 25 lbs. .1035 per lb. 2.59 

Grease from cooking into 

oil 75 lbs. .6850 per lb. 5.14 $9.51 

Total cost $16.59 

Cost per barrel, 135 lbs., $3.31; per cwt., fresh, loose, $2.51. 

Green weight, 1,653 pounds; scraped, 1,333 pounds; cooked, 

933 pounds; finished, 660 pounds. 

PRESERVATIVE PICKLE FOR FRESH TRIPE. 

Oftentimes there is a demand for fresh tripe and 
comparatively little for pickled, in which case the tripe 
is kept fresh by a preservative made as follows : 

100 gallons of water. 
20 pounds boracic acid. 
6 pounds of borax. 
5 pounds of fine salt. 

Mix thoroughl}^ until ingredients are all dissolved; 
chill to a temperature of 45° F. Use same as vinegar. 
Fresh tripe thus handled will keep perfectly for two or 
three weeks in temperatures ranging from 40° to 50° F. 

A dry solution is often used on tripe where it is to be 
shipped or held fresh without a pickle, consisting of: 

12 ounces boracic acid. 
12 ounces borax. 
16 ounces fine salt. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 229' 

All thoroughly mixed and sprinkled on the tripe. This 
amount of powder is sufficient for 100 pounds of fresh 
tripe. Tripe handled properly will keep in this preserva- 
tive for two or three weeks. 

TRIPE TESTS. 

The following tests show the cost of tripe in different 
packages, the cost of packages and vinegar being figured 
at the market prices at the time tests were made : 

FRESH REGULAR TRIPE. 

1,500 pieces tripe at 75c per 100 $11.25 

Labor, scalding 3.15 

" scraping 15.00 

cooking 1.71 

inspecting 3.42 

finistiing 25.61 

" inspecting 1.00 

" weighing 83 

miscellaneous 3.50 

General expense, consisting of administrative cost, steam, 

power, electric light, etc., at 49c per 100 lbs 62.74 

Total cost $128.21 

Finished weight, 12,805 pounds; cost per pound, Ic. 

FIVE TIERCES PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 

1,425 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $14.25 

Five tierces at $1.12 ' 5.60 

Packing 30 

Pickle 1.50 

Coopering 13 

Miscellaneous labor 10 

Total cost ) $21.88 

Cost per cwt., $1.46; cost per tierce, $4.37. 

FIVE BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 

1,000 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $10.00 

Five barrels at 80c 4.00 

Pickle 45 

Packing 13 

Coopering 08 

Miscellaneous labor 10 

Total cost $14.76 

Cost per cwt., $1.48; cost per barrel, $2.95. 



230 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

FIVE HALF-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 

365 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 3.65 

Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 

Pickle 30 

Packing , 09 

Coopering 06 

Miscellaneous labor 08 



Total cost $ 5.98 

Cost per cwt., $1.49; cost per half-barrel, $1.19. 

SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 216 POUNDS. 

216 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 2.16 

Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 

Packing 06 

Pickle 14 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 08 



Total cost $ 3.68 

Cost per cwt., $1.54; cost per quarter-barrel, $0.61. 

TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 180 POUNDS. 

180 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 1.80 

Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 

Packing .06 

Pickle 20 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 



Total cost $ 3.96 

Cost per cwt., $1.98; cost per eighth-barrel, 40c. 

TEN KITS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 

140 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 1.40 

Ten kits at 14c 1.40 

Packing 03 

Pickle 15 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 



Total cost $ 3.08 

Cost per cwt., $2.00; cost per kit, 31c. 

FRESH HONEY-COMB TRIPE. 

820 honey-comb tripe at 15c per 100 $ 1.23 

Labor, scalding 27 

scraping 2.05 

cooking 29 

finishing 2.20 

inspecting 50 

miscellaneous 27 

General expense, consisting of power, steam, electric 

light, etc., at 49c per cwt 4.90 



Total cost $11.71 

Finished weight, 1,000 pounds; cost per cwt., $1.17. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 231 

FIVE TIERCES PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 

1,425 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt .$16.67 

Five tierces at $1.12 5.60 

Packing .44 

Pickle 2.75 

Coopering 19 

Miscellaneous labor .09 



Total cost $25.74 

Cost per cwt., $1.72; cost per tierce, $5.15. 

FIVE BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 

1,000 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $11.70 

Five barrels at 80c 4.00 

Packing 26 

Pickle 45 

Coopering 08 

Miscellaneous labor 09 



Total cost $16.58 

Cost per cwt., $1.65; cost per barrel, $3.32. 

FIVE HALF-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 

365 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 4.27 

Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 

Packing 09 

Pickle 27 

Coopering 06 

Miscellaneous labor 08 

Total cost $ 6.57 

Cost per cwt., $1.64; cost per half-barrel, $1.31. 

SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 
216 POUNDS. 

216 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 2.53 

Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 

Packing 09 

Pickle 13 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 08 

Total cost $ 4.07 

Cost per cwt., $1.70; cost per quarter-barrel, 68c. 

TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PRESER^'ATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 180 POUNDS. 

180 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 2.11 

Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 

Packing 06 

Pickle .20 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 

Total cost $ 4.27 

Cost per cwt., $2.13; cost per eighth-barrel, 43C. 



232 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

TEN KITS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 

140 pounds tripe at |1.17 per cwt $ 1.63 

Ten kits at 14c 1.40 

Packing 03 

Pickle 15 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 

Total cost $ 3.31 

Cost per cwt., $2.31; cost per kit, 33c. 

TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PICKLED REGULAR TRIPE, 200 POUNDS. 

200 pounds tripe at $0.0113 per pound $ 2.26 

Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 

Packing , 06 

Pickle 20 

Coopering .04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 

Total cost $ 4.42 

Cost per cwt., $2.21; cost per eighth-barrel, 44c. 

TEN KITS PICKLED REGULAR TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 

140 pounds tripe at $0.0113 per pound. $ 1.58 

Ten kits at 14c 1.40 

Packing .03 

Pickle .15 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 



Total cost $ 3.26 

Cost per cwt., $2.17; cost per kit, 33c. 

PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE. 

820 pieces honey-comb tripe at 15c per 100 $ 1.23 

Labor, scalding 27 

scraping 2.05 

cooking 29 

finishing 2.20 

inspecting 50 

Miscellaneous labor 27 

Curing charges 2.25 

General expense, consisting of power, steam, electric 

lights, etc 4.97 



Total cost $14.03 

Cooked and finished weight, 1,000 lbs.; cured weight, 1,100 lbs. 
Gain, 10 per cent; cost, '$0.0128 per lb. 

nVE TIERCES PICKLED HONEYCOMB TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 

1,425 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $18.26 

Five tierces at $1.12 5.60 

Packing 30 

Pickle 2.75 

Coopering 13 

Miscellaneous labor 10 



Total cost $27.14 

Cost per cwt., $1.81; cost per tierce, $5.43. 



BEEF TRIMMINGS 233 

FIVE BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 

1,000 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $12.80 

Five barrels at 80c 4.00 

Packing 15 

Pickle 43 

Coopering 08 

Miscellaneous labor 10 



Total cost $17.56 

Cost per cwt., $1.76; cost per barrel, $3.51. 

FIVE HALF-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 

365 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 4.67 

Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 

Packing 09 

Pickle 30 

Coopering 06 

Miscellaneous labor .08 

Total cost $ 7.00 

Cost per cwt., $1.75; cost per half-barrel, $1.40. 

SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 216 POUNDS. 

216 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 2.77 

Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 

Packing 06 

Pickle 14 

Coopering .04 

Miscellaneous labor 08 

Total cost $ 4.29 

Cost per cwt., $1.71; cost per quarter-barrel, 71c. 

TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 200 POUNDS. 

200 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 2.56 

Ten eighth-barrels at 18c .^ 1.80 

Packing 06 

Pickle 20 

Coopering . .04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 

Total cost $ 4.72 

Cost per cwt., $2.36; cost per eighth-barrel, 47c. 

TEN KITS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 

140 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 1.79 

Ten kits at 14c T .' 1.40 

Packing 03 

Pickle 15 

Coopering 04 

Miscellaneous labor 06 

Total cost $ 3.47 

Cost per cwt., $2.31; cost per kit, 35c. 



234 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XII. 
SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING. 

THE STRING GANG. 

The increased consumption of mutton has been very 
marked in this country in the last fifteen years. Prior 
to that time, while there were many sheep raised unsys- 
tematically, mutton, except in the large centers, was 
comparatively little used. The packers by being able to 
obtain sheep in large quantities at the local live stock 
centers, and with their superior distributing facilities, 
soon created a demand for mutton at points where pre- 
viously there had been very little demand for it. xls a 
consequence there has been a large increase in the pro- 
duction of sheep and the consumption in this country 
has in all probability more than doubled during the last 
ten years. 

It is a meat for which many must acquire a taste, 
but it is very healthful and nutritious. At the central 
abattoirs, where government inspection is in force, com- 
paratively few diseases, or few diseased sheep, are found, 
this particular kind of live stock proving to be much 
healthier than either cattle or hogs. The people of Eng- 
land, as compared with those of all other civilized nations 
of the earth, are the largest consumers of mutton and a 
notable lack of cancerous troubles among them is attrib- 
uted by the medical profession generally to the fact that 



SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 



235 



they consume individually a greater proportionate 
amount of this meat. 



ONE TRUCK H0LD5 
TWO 5HECP. 



BLEEDING RAIL 
- CUT THROAT HERE 
13-0 



I CUT 5KIN OPEN ON NCCK AND TORE LEGS HERr 
fL06ENING|OF THE FRONT PART OE 5KIN). 

■^HEIGHT e-y " ^"^^ 

HEIGHT 9-5' ^ \ \\Ljl20 




UJ 



at 

o 



INSERT MOCKS O.tM SPREADER IN 
FORELEG AT THIS POINT. TAKE HOLD 
OF ROPE IN TACKLE AND PULL UP SHEEP SO 
IT HANGS IN HORIZONTAL POSITION AND 
FASTEN KNOT IN SLOT 'g'. 



CUT OPEN THROAT^OSEN SKIN AROUND NECK 
^C UT OFF.FORELEG AT FIRST JOINT CUT SKIN FROM BREAST 



LOSEN SPREADER AND APPLY DOUBLE 
HOOKED TRUCK TO HIND FOOT THAT IS 



CUT. ALLOWING SHEEP TO HANG ON C R/ ,IL 



^ 



CUT THE REMAINING HINDLEG OFF AT 



CUT OPEN SKIN ON BOTH 



HINDLEG5. SEPERATE SKIN FROM HEAD 



20'-Q- 



^-^ 



DRESSING RAIL fe -Q HIGH. 



-FINISHING RAILS- 



FIG. 80.— DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT FOR SHEEP KILLING 
WITH " STRING GANG." 



THE STRING GANG. 

In the economic distribution of labor about the mod- 
ern packing house, probably no other department can 



286 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

show the benefit accruing from same to greater advan- 
tage than has been found in sheep slaughtering. The 
effects of this division of labor in any department are 
first, economy, and second, better workmanship. It is 
natural that a man performing one particular operation 
day after day becomes more expert than if he were doing 




FIG. 81.— HOISTING SHEEP TWO AT A TIME TO STICKING RAIL. 

various kinds of work. Formerly sheep were slaugh- 
tered largely on a piece-work basis, one man dressing the 
sheep throughout. With the modern method each man 
does one particular part of the work, becoming very 
quick and expert in his line, consequently in dressing 
sheep by what is known as a '' string gang," the im- 
provement, as compared with the old method when each 
man dressed his own sheep, is very marked. 



SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 237 

In Fig. 80 is shown in detail a sheep killing arrange- 
ment where a string gang is operated. In a space 80 x 32 
feet in size 2,000 sheep per day can be handled readily by 
means of this method. The sheep are hoisted with a 
double shacklC;, two at a time, and the work is continuous 
from there on until they are dressed, the sheep never 
touching the floor again, which means a great saving of 
labor over the old way of handling sheep by hand entirely. 
This diagram illustrates the different processes in the 
arrangement; also gives height of rails, trucks, spread- 
ers and hooks used on the different rails. Wherever a 
volume of thirty sheep per hour or over are being 
slaughtered a saving can be effected by adopting this 
method of handling. 

In Fig. 81 is shown how the sheep are handled by 
means of a hoist, two at a time, and hung on the stick- 
ing rail. Where sheep are killed in large numbers, it is 
advantageous to hoist two at a time as shown. The men 
shackling become very expert and can shackle two in prac- 
tically the same time that they can one, and if a gang 
are running on a capacity of five hundred per hour, it 
will be seen that considerable time is gr.ined by doing it 
in this manner. 

In Fig. 82 a string gang at work killing and dress- 
ing sheep is shown. A gang sufficient to handle 300 sheep 
an hour should have at least thirty-six to forty sets of 
hooks, or, in other words, facilities for working on thirty- 
six to forty sheep at one time on the dressing rails. As 
will be noted in the-table of wages given on page 241, the 
work is divided up into a great many different parts, 
which is very necessary, as in slaughtering animals so 
rapidly one man has time to do but comparatively little 
on each animal; hence the necessity of having a sufficient 
number of carcasses hanging up at one time to, allow the 



238 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 239 

different men time to do their respective parts. The 
numbers above given are found to be the most advanta- 
geous, as, if there are but a few carcasses on which to 
work at one time, the help is crowded and unable to do 
the work satisfactorily. If there are too many carcasses 
at one time, they show a tendency to become too dry and 
discolored before being washed ; hence it is necessary to 
get the best results as to workmanship and quantity of 
work performed, to have the right number of carcasses 
lianging all the time. 

Another important feature in the working of a string 
gang is the economy of space obtained, a room 32 x 100 
feet in size being ample in which to kill 250 sheep an 
hour, whereas under the old system when each man 
slaughtered and dressed his own sheep, this space would 
not accommodate to exceed seventy an hour. 

SHEEP DRESSI]S^G. 

In the dressing of sheep the following suggestions will 
prove advantageous in turning out work with the best 
results, whether the sheep are dressed by day work, one 
man dressing them throughout, or whether they are 
handled by a string gang. ' 

Legging. — This consists in opening up the skin around 
the legs and center of the body. In doing this work care 
should be taken that the skin be opened up as little around 
the necks and butts as possible, for wlierever the skin 
is removed in the legging there is more or less stain on 
the meat, which it is impossible to wash off. 

Pelting. — In removing the pelt from the carcass care 
should be taken that the '' fell " is not broken in any 
part, for wherever this is broken, the meat will show the 
effect of age, and will present a very unsightly appear- 
ance. 



2-40 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Methods of Dressing. — This is a part of the work 
which is very hard to describe, as the dressing at differ- 
ent points varies to such an extent that there are hardly 
two large cities where the methods are alike, especially 
in the case of lambs. Generally speaking mutton is round 
dressed, using no back sets and not using the caul. 
Lambs are dressed according to localities, some round 
dressed, same as mutton, others with double back sets 
and the caul on, others with single back sets and the 
ribs broken and still others with inside sets, in every in- 
stance the caul being left on. In general, however, the 
point to be watched in all this work is that it be done in 
a neat and workmanlike manner, neatness in all cases 
being extremely essential. 

When the mutton is run immediately into a well-built 
refrigerator where the proper circulation and tempera- 
tures can be maintained, there is no danger in using an 
excess amount of water in the washing. A wash cloth 
made of ten to fifteen thicknesses of very loosely woven 
cheese cloth, quilted together, makes an excellent cloth 
with which to wash sheep. This, in connection with 
plenty of hot water, will give a bright and attractive ap- 
pearance to the meat. 

Where the dressed mutton is not run into a cooler, 
and outside air is depended upon for chilling, very little 
water should be used, the meat simply being wiped with 
a rag, made as heretofore described, wringing same 
out in hot water. 

Sheep should always be kept in dry pens before kill- 
ing, for if their fleece is allowed to become dirty, it is 
practically impossible to prevent the meat from becom- 
ing stained. Where the sheep get wet and muddy it is 
found of great advantage to hold them for a time in pens 
with two to four inches of dry sawdust on the floor, this 



SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 



241 



sawdust having the effect of cleaning and drying the 
legs and under part of the body so that after slaughter- 
ing, when the pelt is removed, the meat may be kept 
much cleaner than otherwise. 

The rates of wages paid sheep butchers in Chicago 
is given in the following table: 

TABLE OF WAGES FOR SHEEP BUTCHERS. 



No. 
men 



Rate 
per hour 



Total 
per hour 



Foreman ($23.00 per week) 

Sealer 

Driving up 

Shackler 

Hoister (also marks joints) 

Sticker (also breaks joints) 

Forequarter hoister 

Forequarter legger (also skins joints) 

Shoulder puncher 

Brisket pullers (also helps leggev) . . . 
Scalper (also helps jaw skinner). . . 
Cutting down " " ... 

Hind leggers (also punches cods) .... 

Swinger off 

Shoving sheep (also hangs to ring). . 

Ripping down 

Pelters 

Rumpers (also pull backs heel up) . . . 

Header 

Scrubber 

Breast splitter .^ 

Gutter 

Neck trimmer 

Caul puller 

Dressers 

Rib cutter 

Setting up 

Legger 

Pick up guts and pelts 

Rack men 

Set and skewer boys 

Scrubbers and wipers 

Pinning up legs 

Cooler men 

Gut fat pickers 

Scrap vat 



.38% 

.333^ 

.12}4 

.18K 

.23Ji 

.35 

.30 

.30 
.30 

.21 

.30 

. 27 ^-o 

.20 " 

.20 

.34 

.37J.2 

.36 

. 33I0 

•17K 

. 27 ^-ty 

. 22H' 

.171-2' 

.361-3 
.331^- 
.421^ 
.37K 
.20 

.17H 
.17 V 

.171-3 

.I2I3 
• I'i'V 
.1.5 

.10 



$0.38>i 
.32X 
.13}^ 
.18% 
.32% 
.25 
.20 
.27% 
.20 
.60 
.21 
.20 
.82% 
.20 
.20 
.24 
1.12% 
.78 
.22% 
.17% 
.27% 
.33% 
.17% 
.26% 
.65 
.43% 
.37% 
.30 
.35 
.35 
.25 
.70 
.12% 
.17% 

■ .31% 

.10 



51 



$10.80% 



Average kill, 150 sheep per hour; average cost, $0,072 per head. 



242 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 243 

When dressing sheep with the "string gang," on this 
basis of wages, with skilled help, they should be dressed, 
including all expense of foreman, offal work, etc., for 
7c per head. 

CHILLING. 

As fast as sheep are slaughtered they should be run 
directly into coolors, where they are hung on racks 
as shown in Fig. 83. If they are left out, and partially 
air-chilled, it has the effect of discoloring them about 
the legs and thin parts of the carcasses, causing these 
to look dark and less attractive than they do when placed 
in the cooler immediately after slaughtering. There is 
little or no danger of chilling sheep too fast, as long 
as the temperature is above 32° F., as the dressed car- 
cass is not of sufficient thickness at any part to prevent 
the animal heat from escaping before decomposition can 
set in, and the colder the room into which they are put, 
as long as it is above the freezing point, the better will 
be the appearance of the mutton when it comes out of 
the cooler. Sheep chilled for twenty-four hours in 
proper coolers, and thoroughly dried and hardened, are 
ready for shipment or the cutting block. In many places, 
especially in Australia and South America, they are 
frozen; some few being frozen, of late, in this country 
for export. In such case, however, they should first be 
thoroughly chilled in a dry cooler wher^e there is a good 
natural circulation of air, for twenty-four hours, after 
which they may be put into the freezers at a tempera- 
ture as near zero as~ possible, so that the freezing will 
not be delayed. If they are frozen quickly they retain 
a clear, bright appearance when thawed out. 

Sheep Pelts. — The handling of sheep pelts, especially 
in hot weather, requires careful attention. The pelts, as 
soon as taken off, should be spread out in a room where 



244 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

it is as cold as possible without being refrigerated, and 
allowed to cool off for at least twelve hours before salt- 
ing. This is especially necessary when the animal 
slaughtered has a very heavy fleece; with shearlings 
there is little or no necessity for taking this precaution. 
Fleece skins, however, hold the animal heat, so that 
when put into a pack and salted, if not properly cooled, 
they soon begin to get warm and decompose, and as soon 
as the wool slips, the leather of the skin is ruined. 

After the pelts have been spread out and allowed to 
thoroughly chill, as suggested, they should be salted in 
piles not to exceed thirty inches high by putting one 
skin on top of another, flesh side up, and using a fine 
solar salt, care being taken that they are thoroughly 
salted around the heads and leggings. After they have 
been in salt for a week, it is well, especially in warm 
weather, to overhaul them, shifting the packs so that 
when through, the top pelts are on the bottom and vice 
versa. After they have lain in salt for two weeks they 
are ready for shipment. 

Lamb Tongues. — All tongues from sheep come under 
this head. After they have been cut out of the heads 
they should be thrown into ice water, washed and spread 
out on a table, or in jjans, in the cooler at a tempera- 
ture of from 34° to 38° F. for twenty-four hours. Fol- 
lowing that they should be trimmed, cutting otf the extra 
pieces of fat and the gullet. They are then ready for cur- 
ing. They should be cured in a plain 75-degree strengi;li 
pickle with six ounces of saltpeter to 100 pounds of meat, 
holding them in this pickle for a week or ten days. They 
are then ready for use, either in sausage or for cooking. 

Pichled Lamb Tongues. — When tongues are pickled 
they are put up with a white wine vinegar and are han- 
dled as follows : After they are thoroughly chilled they 



SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 245 

are scalded sufficiently to take off the outside film or 
skin on the tongue. This is then scraped off with a hand 
scraper, or knife, and the tongue is trimmed, cutting off 
any parts that are discolored, or any loose pieces of fat. 
The tongues are afterward cooked until they are soft 
enough for the bone to pull out readily. No special time 
can be fixed upon for this work as the cooking varies 
greatly, according to the condition of the animals from 
which the tongues were taken, and it is well in cooking 
them to keep the sheep and lamb tongues separate. 

After they are cooked and the bones are pulled out at 
the root of the tongue, they are ready for pickling. They 
should first be pickled in 45-degree vinegar for at least 
twenty-four hours, when they are ready to be packed in 
packages for shipment, using 40-degree vinegar by add- 
ing full strength fresh vinegar to the pickle they were 
first put in. In packing them in small packages especial- 
ly, they are generally seasoned with coriander seed, bay 
leaves and sliced lemon. 

LAMB TONGUES TESTS. 

The following tests show yields of pickled lamb 
tongues at values prevailing at the time they were made : 

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES OR 320 POUNDS LAMB TONGUES. 

Cost of 1,000 pieces lamb tongues at %c each..? 7.50 

Scraping, 10c per 100 pieces 1.00 

Snouting, coolving, etc., one and a half hours, 

at 18c 27 

Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces 50 

Pickling, 10c per 100 pieces \ . . . 1.00 

Miscellaneous labor .17 

General expense, 42c per cwt. on 143 lbs. pro- 
duced 60 

$11.04 

Produced: 

Green weight 320 lbs. 

Cooked weight 143 lbs. 

Shrinkage 177 lbs. or 55% 

Credit 23 lbs. trimmings at l%c per lb $ .35 

Cost of 143 lbs. of lamb tongues 110.69 

Cost per pound, $0.0747. 



246 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COST OF ONE BARREL OF LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT 100 POUNDS NET. 

190 pounds lamb tongues at $0.0747 per poiind $14.19 

One barrel 78 

Packing, one hour at 17^20 18 

Pickle, eleven gallons at 2I/2C 28 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 

Miscellaneous labor 03 

Cost of one barrel $15.50 

COST OF TWO HALF-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE 

POUNDS NET. 

146 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $10.91 

Two half-barrels at 35c 70 

Packing, three-quarter hour at 17V2C 13 

Pickle, nine gallons at 2i/^c 23 

Spices at 2c each 04 

Coopering, one-twelfth hour at 25c 02 

Miscellaneous labor 02 

Total cost $12.05 

Cost per half-barrel 6.03 

COST OF THREE QUARTER-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX 

POUNDS NET. 

108 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $ 8.07 

Three quarter-barrels at 20c 60 

Packing, one-half hour at 17%c 09 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c 19 

Spices at 2c each 06 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 

Miscellaneous labor 02 

Total cost $ 9.07 

Cost per quarter-barrel 3.02 

COST OF FIVE EIGHTH-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT EIGHTEEN 

POUNDS NET. 

Ninety pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $ 6.72 

Five eighth-barrels at 18c 90 

Packing, three-quarter hour at 17%c 13 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2i/^c 19 

Spices at 2c each 10 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 

Miscellaneous labor 03 

Total cost $ 8.11 

Cost per eighth-barrel 1.62 

COST OF THIRTY KITS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. 

420 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $31.37 

Thirty kits at 14c 4.20 

Packing, one and three-quarter hours at 17i/^c 31 

Pickle, thirty gallons at 2i/^c 75 

Spices at 2c each 60 

Coopering, two-thirds hour at 25c 17 

Miscellaneous labor 18 

Total cost $37.58 

Cost per kit 1.25 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 247 



CHAPTER XIII. 
HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING. 

INTRODUCTOEY. 

In no department of the packing industry has the 
progress, as well as the evolution, been so extensive as 
in pork packing. Only a few years ago, comparatively, 
it was considered impossible to kill hogs for packing 
purposes, except during the winter season, and the vari- 
ous packing plants located throughout the country 
worked during the winter months in their crude way, 
jjacking as many hogs as conditions would permit, turn- 
ing out the cured meat in the spring, ready for delivery, 
in a very inferior condition and at a far greater cost 
to the consumer than is the case today. 

Under the conditions then , existing there was com- 
paratively little of the hog that was sold fresh, for being 
killed as they were, in isolated places, there was little 
opportunity for handling fresh product quickly enough 
to make it available for general consumption, conse- 
quently fresh pork was sold only in the immediate vicin- 
ity of the slaughtering place and it was necessary to 
cure the balance. Under present methods, fresh pork 
product is shipped to England from Chicago and west- 
ern points, and delivered in good condition to the con- 
sumer. Wlien one stops to consider the advancement 
that has been made in the past decade in this particular 
line it seems almost impossible that a like progress could 



248 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

be made in the future, although doubtless, as is often 
said, the packing house business is still in its infancy. 

EEFEIGERATION OP HOGS, 

The first important step in the evolution of '^all-the- 
year packing " from ^' winter packing " was the intro- 
duction of the ice machine, and in the best managed 
packing houses today little or no regard is paid to the 
outside temperature, as the hogs when killed are run 
directly from the killing floor to the chill room. It is 
cheaper and safer to handle hogs with mechanical re- 
frigeration than to depend on the outside air for chilling, 
for when they are partially air dried, or chilled, they 
may be over-chilled, or under-chilled, according to at- 
mospheric conditions, whereas, if they are put into the 
cooler, the chilling and removal of the animal heat is 
under absolute control, and where it is thus handled the 
percentage of " sour " meat is reduced to a minimum — - 
practically nothing. Under the older methods, where 
hogs were chilled with ice, with the most careful man- 
agement, from 5 per cent to 15 per cent of the hams 
and shoulders soured, whereas under modern methods 
this will not average one-tenth of 1 per cent in well 
managed houses ; it is therefore readily understood how 
the intelligent application of the modern refrigerating 
machine has caused an evolution which is astounding. 
Another great advantage over old methods is found in 
the transportation facilities that are now available. 
When killing hogs in large quantities the fresh pork prod- 
uct is practically all sold fresh, and a much greater 
revenue is derived from the hogs handled in this man- 
ner than when salted as formerly and sold in the shape 
of cured meats. "With the present facilities for distribu- 
tion the public at large can buy fresh pork at any time 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



249 



of the year, handled in the most approved and hygienic 
manner, while a few years ago it was impossible to obtain 
it at any price, unless the purchaser was located in the 
immediate neighborhood of the place when the animals 
were slaughtered. 

THE HOG SLATJGHTEE HOUSE. 

The outlay for buildings for pork packing is very 
much greater than for beef packing, for in slaughtering 




FIG 84.— UNLOADING HOGS FROM CAR. 



cattle there is comparatively little left behind that re- 
quires storage, but in slaughtering hogs fully 70 per cent 
of the carcass goes into the curing department, to stay 
there anywhere from thirty to ninety days ; consequently 
a much larger and more expensive set of buildings is 
required than in the slaughtering of cattle. For in- 
stance, in the matter of chill room it is customary to 



250 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



251 




252 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

figure cold storage for five times the. hog hanging 
capacity; in other words, if a plant was to be built to 
kill a thousand hogs a day there should be hanging ca- 
pacity for 2,500, and five times the hanging capacity 
should be in ordinary practice sufficient for curing the 
product, providing it is sold promptly as cured. If it is 
to be carried for any length of time a greater ratio than 
five to one should be used. This, of course, does not 
refer to any of the auxiliary departments of the plant 
but only to the cold storage, or chill room department. 

In general practice it is considered essential that the 
killing should be done in the same building with the 
rendering department, thereby keeping all the offal near 
the tanks and reducing the labor to a minimum. It is 
always best to confine the chilling and curing to one 
building. It is cheaper in construction, if building anew, 
and it is of great advantage in the matter of insurance, 
which is always a very important item ; and it is in keep- 
ing down the expenses in all lines that the profit of the 
business is realized. It is always advisable to liave the 
chill rooms for the hogs on the top floors, as gravity is 
the cheapest force that can be employed to move the 
products from floor to floor for delivery to their vari- 
ous destinations. 

HANDLING OP LIVE HOGS. 

More care should be used in the handling of hogs than 
any other live stock as the hogs are much the heaviest 
for their size and strength and are, therefore, more easily 
injured. Special pens should be provided for their re- 
ception, details of a pen being shown in Figs. 85, 
86 and 87. Hogs should never be killed until they are 
thoroughly rested and in as normal a condition as it is 
possible to have them. In taking them to the killing 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



253 



pens they should be handled carefully, and crowding and 
piling np avoided as much as possible. Many hams are 
injured by the hogs being driven roughly, causing them 
to pile on top of one another, spreading the lighter ones 
and thereby causing what is known to the trade as a 




-.I-I-/4B0LT. 






IH^ 



mt 



Hz 



n((0 



(9 

Ul. 



i*- 



2-2 



■lO/d) 



4-* 



rCEKZ 



9 



"nI^ 



-w kj BOLT 



c 



2*2i 



*-|M 



'•n^ 



A^ 



■-k 



H'llh- 



rr 



Li- 






3^ 



^ H a BOLT. 



FIG. 87.— DETAIL OF HINGES FOR MODERN HOG PEN GATE. 




" face bruised ham." Men driving hogs should not be 
allowed to use a whip, as they soon become careless and 
mark the hogs more or less. A better method is to use 
a paddle shaped stick about 18 inches or 2 feet long with 
a piece of canvas sewed onto it. With this canyas they 



254 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



can strike the hogs, and as it makes a noise it will do 
more toward driving them without injury than a whip, 
which marks them and injures the meat. At most of the 
large packing houses located in the great hog killing 




FIG. 88.— HOGS RESTING AND COOLING OFF BEFORE BEING 
TAKEN TO THE SLAUGHTER HOUSE. 

centers of the United States cooling pens are provided, 
directly adjoining the killing rooms (a good idea of which 
may be obtained from the view shown in Fig. 88), where 
the animals may rest after being driven from the storage 
or receiving pens. By permitting the animals to rest in 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



255 



these pens for a sliort period the abnormal amount of 
heat caused by excitement and fear is gotten rid of 
leaving them in much better condition for killing before 
they are taken to the slaughter house. 




FIG. 89.— HOISTING HOGS OX A HURFORD REVOLVING WHEEL. 
PENNING. 

In handling hogs in the cooling pens, men should 
never be allowed to use sticks or clubs, but they should 
be provided with the canvas covered paddle already 
referred to and described in these pages, to urge on the 
hogs without bruising them. All gates and openings into 



25G 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



closed pens should be large enough, so that the hogs will 
not crowd, or climb upon one another. 



SHACKLING. 



Men shackling should always be made to shackle the 
hind leg next to the revolving or Hurford wheel, so that 




FIG. 90.— STICKING AND BLEEDING HOGS. 

when the hog is raised, it is done with as little twisting 
effect as possible. As fast as the hogs are hoisted by 
tlie wheel, which operation is shown very clearly in Fig. 
89, and run on the rail, they are stuck and bled, as shown 
in Fig. 90. 

A small hoist, lifting but one hog at a time, as shown 
in Fig. 91, is often used and is not only a very useful 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



257 



and labor saving device but is also very economical from 
the fact that it does not jar or injure the hogs when 
being hung up, as is often the case with an ordinary 
hand hoist. This particular machine is adapted for small 
slaughter houses rather than where business is done on 
a large scale, in which case a double machine will be 




FIG. 91.— HURFORD SMAtL . HOG HOIST. 

found to be almost indispensable. It is therefore gen- 
erally in use in all large houses. 

STICKING. 

Men sticking hogs should be made to keep up 
close, sticking them just as fast as hung up. They should 



258 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



be instructed to make a good large opening in the neck, 
3 or 4 inches long, in order to give the blood a good free 
How. They should also be careful to see that they 
sever the veins and arteries ; at the same time that they 
do not cut into the shoulder, as in that instance the blood 
settles there, and it becomes necessary to trim at con- 
siderable loss. It is advisable to have a daily report 




FIG. 92.— HOG SCALDING. 



made out from the cutting floor of all shoulder stuck 
hogs, having the sticker sign it daih^, thereby showing 
him what kind of work he is doing. This quite frequently 
has the effect of making him more careful in his work. 



SCALDING. 



A great deal depends on this work, as to speed ob- 
tained, as well as to general appearance of the hogs when 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



259 




260 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



dressed. Care should be used to see that water is kept 
at an even temperature, and that the hogs are thrown 
into the tub evenly. The scalder will sometimes become 
careless, and throw out hogs whether they are ready or 
not, or when rough ones are thrown in, which should re- 
ceive careful attention, throw them out in their turn, 
instead of holding them back until properly scalded. 




FIG. 94.— HOG SCRAPING GANG AT 'WORK. 

These are points which should be followed very closely 
in hog dressing. 

The operation of hog scalding as it is done on a large 
scale is illustrated in Fig. 92. 

SCRAPIXG. 

Pulling the bristles is shown in Fig. 93. From the 
bristle bench the carcass should be promptly put into the 
scraping machine, shown to the right in Fig, 93. All 
hair left on the hog after it comes through the machine 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



261 



should be scraped off as much as possible, instead of 
being shaven, as is often done. AVhen it is left on the 
hog, and is shaven off after the meats are cured 
and smoked, the rind of the meat shrinks, leaving the 
hair sticking out in a rough, unsightly manner, disfigur- 
ing the meats. After having been scraped as well as 
possible, the skin should then be shaven, care being 




FIG. 95.— CLEANING HOG CARCASSES. 

\ 



used to see that all hair is taken off without scoring 
the hog. 

Fig. 94 shows the scraping gang at work, and Fig. 
95 the operation of cleaning the hog carcasses. 



HAM FACHSTG AND GUTTING. 



In ham facing care should be used to see that the 
workmen cut off the fat down to the lean meat, and at the 



262 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



same time that they do not break the striffin. In gutting 
great care should be taken to see that the hams are 
opened centrally; also that the intestines are saved care- 
fully, and that the work is done in a cleanly and tidy 
manner in every particular. 

LEAF LAKD. 

Pulling the leaf lard, which is done just before the 
splitting (Fig. 96), is a part of the work that should be 




FIG. 96.— SCRAPING LEAF LARD. 



done with considerable care in order that the leaves may 
be pulled as clean as possible. 

If this operation is performed in an indifferent and 
careless manner, a considerable amount of the leaf lard 
will be left in the carcasses and it is afterward scraped 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



263 




264 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



[L. 











'vD 


g 




'J 


5 


jl 




HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 265 

out, whereas if given careful attention at first, it is made 
into neutral. What lard is left, however, after pulling 
the leaf, should be scraped out, as it is often worth more 
if taken as lard than if left as side meat. Besides its 
presence greatly disfigures the meat. 

SPLITTING. 

This should receive careful attention, splitting 
through the center of the back so as to leave a smooth 
pork loin. 

TEMPEEATURES IN CHILL EOOM. 

Hogs should be run into coolers at a temperature of 
28° to 30° F. In filling the tunnels, the temperature 
will run as high as 45° to 46° F., but should be down as 
low as 36° F. in the first twelve hours, and from that 
brought down gradually to a temperature of 32° F. by 
the time the carcasses have been forty-eight hours in the 
cooler. 

Fig. 97 shows the manner in which hogs are run into 
the chill room. The usual construction is six rails to a 
16-foot bay, which will nominally figure about 414 feet of 
floor surface per hog. A fairly good idea of the relative 
or proportionate size of cooler and hog slaughtering 
rooms may be obtained from a study of the floor plan 
shown in Fig. 98. 

Fig. 99 (see following two pages) shows a section 
through a hog killing floor, designed for a modern pack- 
ing house, showing carrying rails, scraping benches, 
sticking pens, etc. 

CARE IN CHILL EOOM. 

As before stated, it is in this particular part of the 
house that the greatest changes have been made, and 
it is also in this particular place where the most careful 



266 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



and minute attention to details is necessary in order to 
turn out meats in the best marketable condition, as only 
a few degrees deviation in temperatures from carefully 
set rules in the handling of chill rooms shows excess 
per cent of sour meat found thirty to sixty days after- 
ward when the meats are brought from the curing cellar. 
This, therefore, is a department that should receive the 
most careful attention, A wrong start here can never 
be righted afterward. 




FIG. 99.— SECTION THROUGFI HOG KILLING FLOOR, SHOAVING 



It was formerh^ considered an absolute necessity to 
have an open-air hanging room where hogs could first 
be left to dry after slaughtering, in many cases allowing 
them to hang over night in the outside air; the object 
being to save refrigeration. It is the author's opinion 
that the economy thus obtained is anything but economy. 
Past experience has proved that there are certain condi- 
tions which must be adhered to closelj^ in the safe han- 
dling and curing of pork products, and proper tempera- 
tures are among the most important of these. It is very 
rare that these temperatures prevail in the outside atmos- 
phere, and hogs that are left on hanging floor over 
night are either insufficiently chilled or over-chilled the 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



267 



next morning. Many packers feel it advantageous, how- 
ever, to run hogs into a hanging room, allowing them to 
dry out for one or two hours prior to putting them in the 
chill room. While this has no deteriorating effect on the 




CATJEYING RAILS, SCRAPING BENCHES, STICKING PENS, ETC. 

product, the expense of handling them and the cost of 
labor incurred is much more than the saving would be 
in refrigeration, if they are ppt directly into the chill 
room. 

The first essential feature in a chill room is that it be 
properly constructed and have sufficient refrigeration so 
that the temperatures can be controlled precisely as de- 
sired. It is advisable that the coolers be partitioned off 
on each line of posts lengthwise, making separate bays 
or tunnels. Into this^the hogs are run as fast as they are 
killed, providing that in so doing the temperature is not 
run up too high. If the temperature goes above 
50° F., the carcasses should be run into another tun- 
nel, and sent back to the first one as the temperature 
goes down. A full head of refrigeration should be put 



268 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

on to prevent the cooler from going higher than 50° F. 
It should remain between 44° to 50° F., while be- 
ing filled, and held at that temperature for about 
two hours after filling. It will be found by this 
time that the vapor has passed away, being taken 
up by the refrigerant, and that the carcasses show 
signs of drying. Then more refrigeration should be 
turned on and in twelve hours from the time this refrig- 
eration is put on the temperature of the cooler should be 
86° to 37° F. A higher temperature would mean delay 
in removing the animal heat and consequently a tendency 
to decomposition. A lower temperature chills the out- 
side surface too rapidly, thereby retaining the animal 
heat next to the bone, with a similar result. The first 
twelve hours of the chilling of all kinds of meat contain- 
ing animal heat is the most important part of it, the after 
chilling being of much less importance. 

When the carcasses are to be cut after being forty- 
eight hours in the chill room, the cooler should be brought 
down gradually to a temperature of 28° F. If they are 
to be cut when seventy-two hours old, which from the 
author's experience is preferable, the cooler should be 
brought down gradually to a temperature of 30° F. ; this 
would mean that they should be brought from 36° to 30° 
F., a lowering of six degrees in temperature, in prac- 
tically fifty-eight hours. It would mean about one degree 
each eight hours, and held in this condition, not the six 
degrees in two hours, for in that case the meat would be 
frozen. With a cooler properly equipped, and a careful 
attendant, these instructions can be carried out in detail, 
and when thus followed the safe curing of the product 
will be found to be practically assured. 

While there are other matters which need careful at- 
tention, if the chilling is not done properly, the rest of 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 269 

the operation will never save the product. The cooler 
should at all times be kept dry and clean with a sprinkling 
of dry sawdust on the floor, this having a tendency to 
absorb drippings, clots of blood, etc., from the carcasses, 
and keep the cooler clean and sweet, whereas if this accu- 
mulation is allowed to drop and remain on the bare floor 
it soon becomes soured and is a menace to the product 
being handled. 

SHRINKAGE IN CHILL ROOM. 

The question is often raised how much the hogs will 
shrink from dressed warm weight to chill weight in the 
cooler, and many people figure that this shrinkage repre- 
sents a loss. While it may mean a loss in the weight of 
the product sold, if the cooler is so handled that the meat 
will not shrink, then there is trouble ahead for the pro- 
ducer, in the fresh as well as in the cured product. The 
excess moisture of the meat must be taken out in the 
process of chilling to handle them successfully after- 
ward. The following figures will give an idea of the 
actual shrinkage of hogs run direct into the cooler. It 
will be noted the tests were made on light hogs used for 
shipping purposes. The percentage of shrinkage would 
not be as great on heavier carcasses : 

TEST NO. 1 ON SHRINKAGE OF HOGS IN COOLER. 

Forty-five hogs weighed in cooler direct fi^om killing floor — 
Warm weight, 6,892 pounds; average, 153 pounds; temperature 
of cooler, 51° to 48'' F. 

Weight after hanging in cooler forty-eight hours, 6,682 
pounds; shrinkage of ^10 pounds or 3.04 per cent; temperature 
of cooler, 35^ to 36" F. 

Weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours, 6,570 
pounds; shrinkage of 322 pounds or 4.67 per cent; tempera- 
ture of cooler, 31° to 32° F. 

Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four and one-half 
hours, 6,552 pounds; shrinkage of 340 pounds or 4.93 per cent; 
temperature of cooler, 32° F. 



270 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



TEST XO. 2. 

Forty-five hogs weighed into cooler direct from killing floor 
— Warm weight, 6,970 pounds; average, 155 pounds; tempera- 
ture of cooler, 54° P. 

Weight after hanging in cooler forty-six hours, 6,660 pounds; 
shrinkage of 310 pounds or 4.45 per cent; " temperature of 
cooler, 36° F. 

Weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours, 6,623 
pounds; shrinkage, 347 pounds or 4.97 per cent; temperature 
of cooler, 32° F. 

Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four hours, 6,613 
pounds; shrinkage, 357 pounds or 5.12 per cent; temperature 
of cooler, 32° F. 

LABOE AND WAGES IN HOG HOUSE. 

The following is a list of wages and the number of 
men required in a well regulated house to handle a given 
number of hogs per hour. The wages paid are those in 
vogue at the present writing at the principal American 
packing centers. 

The first table gives a list of men required and the 
wages paid same for handling hog heads: 

COST OF HOG HEAD GANG HANDLING 400 PER HOUR. 



No. 
men 


Position 


Rate 
per hour 


Total 




Foreman scaler 


$0.20 
.2.5 
.20 

.17M 
.18 V,' 

.221^ 
.1.5 
.17>^ 
.18 

.1.5 
.16K 


$0.20 




Tong"uer . . , 


.25 




Head skinner ..... 


.20 




Templer. . . •. 


.17J^ 




Chisler 


.18)^ 




Jaw bone puller. 


.17K 




Jaw bone trimmer , 


.1114 




Cheeker 

Cutting out head meat 


.22M 
.15 




Cheek meat trimmer 


AlYi 


2 

3 

2 


Snouters (average 360 at .^Oc) 

Saving brains -j *'^'° 

Laborers 


1.80 

!■ •■- 

.163^ 





Truckers 


.35 








19 






$4.72K 









Cost per head, $0.0118. 



HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 



271 



COST OF HOG KILLING, AVERAGE 400 HOGS PER HOUR. 



No. 
men 



Position 



Foreman ($24.00 per week). 

Scaler ($12.00 per week) 

Driving up hogs 

iShacklers . . 

Sticker 

Operating levers 

Dropping in tub . . , 

Scalder 

Holding down backs 

Foot pullers 

Ham scraper 

Hooking on hogs 

Tripper 

Header 

String cutter 

Hanger off 

Ham scrapers 

Shoulder " , 



Belly " 

Ham shavers 

Belly " 

Shoulder " 

Brisket opener 

Belly " 

Eich " 

Rimmer, 

Snatcher 

Dropping off heads 

Ham facer 

Lard pullers. . 

Kidney boy ^ . 

Splitters 

Neck washers 

Belly shavers in run 

Caller to scale 

Cooler men 

Leaf lard truckers 

Pluck and paunch trimmers 

Gall puller 

Gut cutters 

Ruffle pullers 



Rate 
per hour 



:::;} 



Fat washers r 

Janitor 

Truck oiler (also works on gam sticks) 



.40 
.20 

.llli 

.21 }4 

.35 

.20 

.20 

.35 

.173-2 

.20 

.17K 

.321^ 

.16X 

.32>i 

.20 

.321-.^ 

.17}-^ 

.16>i 

.17M 

.16>^ 

.25 

.22X 

.25 

.22>.^ 

.25 

.25 

.27}^ 

.20 

.273^ 

.21 H 

.15 

.35 

.17K 

.22>^ 

.17K 

.17K 

.17K 

.22>i 

.173^ 

.223-2 

.15 

.17K 

.173^ 

.173^ 

.173i 



Total 



$0.40 
.20 
.173^ 
.55 
.35 
.20 
.30 
.35 
.35 
.40 
.173-^ 
.323^- 
.16 
.323-^ 
.20 
.323^ 
.35 

■ .34 

.33 
.75 
.45 
.75 



.25 

.273^ 

.20 

.27>^ 

.55 

.15 

.70 

.35 

.45 

.173i 

.70 

.35 

.45 

.173^ 

.45 

.323i 

.523^ 
.173^ 
.173^ 



$15.01 



Cost per head, $0.0375. 



272 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COST OF HOG CUTTING. AVERAGING 450 HOGS PER HOUR. 



No. 
men 



Position 



Foreman ($34.00 per week) 

Cooler foreman 

Cooler men 

Cutting down 

Ham sawyers 

Cutting off hams ] 

Shoulder sawyer 

Shoulder helper 

Ham foot sawyer 

Ham trimmers 

Tail trimmer 

Passing to boners 

Shoulder boners , 

Pnssing to shoulder sawyer 

Shoulder sawyer 

Passing from sawyer 

Butt pullers 

Pork trimmer 

Shoulder trimmers 

Scribers 

Placing sides 

Loin pullers 

Loin passers 

Loin trimmers 

Skirt trimmer 

Ribbers 

Back fat trimmers 

Dry salt belly " 

Passing to belly press 

Feeding " " 

Taking from " " 

Belly trimmers 

On trucks and gam sticks 

Laborers 

Laborers . . . . 



Rate 
per hour 



Total 



1.40 
.20 

.17.V 

.n}i 

.20 

.25 

.2.5 

.ITVo 

.20 

.3.5 

.25 

.15 
.20 
.17K 
.20 
.20 
.30 
25 

.17}-2 

. 27 V 

.171.0 

.25 

.20 

.30 

.22K 

.25 

• 17K 

.173i 

.171^2 

. 27 i-o" 

.17>^' 

.17}-2 

.163-2' 



$0.40 
.20 
.70 
.17K 
.QTM 

■ .45 

.25 
.173i 
.30 
1.40 
.17 H 
• 17>^ 
.75 
.15 
.20 

.20 

.20 
1.20 

.50 

.35 

.55 

.35 

.50 

.20 
1.20 

.45 

.50 

.17J^ 

.171'^ 

1.10 
.20 

.523^ 
.33 



69 



$15.83 



Cost per head, $0.0352. 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 273 



CHAPTER XIV. 
PORK CUTS AND YIELDS. 

CUTTING FLOORS. 

As soon as the hogs are thoroughly chilled they are 
ready for the cutting room. To be safe, however, the 
hogs should show a temperature of from 34° to 36° F. 
inside of the hams and shoulders. If this temperature in 
the meat has been reached by gradual chilling for about 
the time specified in previous chapter, very little trouble 
should be experienced in curing the meats. The proper 
cutting of the hog carcass is one of the most important 
items in the economical handling of hogs. The great 
variety of cuts and the percentages of yield of the vari- 
ous cuts are given on succeeding pages. For cutting and 
trimming economically it is essential that suitable facil- 
ities be provided. As a guide there are presented in 
Figs. 100 and 101 diagrams of one of the most mod- 
ern pork cutting floors on which are used movable 
benches, power saws, etc. Fig. 100 \ gives the floor 
plan and Fig. 101 cross sections on lines A — B and 
C — D of same plan. This cutting room, it may be noted, 
occupies three different floors, one above the other, mak- 
ing use of the cheapest of all mechanical forces, gravity. 
The hogs are first laid on the bench on the top floor, where 
the hams are cut off, after which the remainder of the 
carcass is carried to the chopping block and the shoulders 
cut off, going through their respective chutes to the bench 



274 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



on the floor beiow. Here the loins are pulled, sides made 
into their respective cuts, hams and shoulders trimmed, 
the finished meats, as well as the trimmings, passing 




jdes8,back chute 

BELLY CHUTE 

-sides chute 
-Shoulder chute 



FIG. 100.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL OF HOG CUTTING ROOM. 



through a chute to the floor below. The meats are graded 
from there to be put into the various assortments, the 
trimmings going on to a large bench. When the lean 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



275 





276 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

trimmings have been removed, the lard trimmings are 
thrown behind the operators on to a conveyor which 
takes the trimmings directly to the tank house. A care- 
ful study of this plan will be interesting, and while it may 
not be adapted, in full, to any one particular house, some 
of the features can be worked to advantage almost any- 
where. The equipment here shown represents a cutting 
capacity of 500 hogs per hour. 

PERCENTAGES OF YIELD. 

The variety of cuts into which a hog can be divided 
are many and the tables following indicate the percent- 
ages of yield of the different cuts, based on the live weight 
of the hogs. The percentage of yield of lard includes 
both prime steam lard and leaf. It should be understood 
that the total yield of the various cuts mentioned will 
vary slightly in different markets, and in the same 
market at different seasons of the year, according to the 
quality of the hog. These variations will not be more 
than 2 per cent, probably, on the total yield. 

The percentages here given are about an average, or 
]:>ossibly a little under the average, and are based on hogs 
averaging from 240 to 275 pounds live weight. Extra 
short clears, extra short ribs, pork loins, fat backs and 
bellies are made out of mixed packing hogs, averaging 
220 to 300 pounds ; at some seasons of the year averaging 
twenty-five to thirty pounds heavier. 

A hog cut into extra short clears will yield the follow- 
ing percentages of live weight: 

Per cent. 

Extra short clears 26 

Loin 9 

Ham 121/2 

Shoulder 9 

Lard 13 

Total 69y2 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 277 

A hog cut into extra short ribs will yield the follow- 
ing percentages of live weight : 

Per cent. 

Extra short ribs 26^^ 

Loin 9 

Ham 121/2 

Shoulder 9 

Lard 13 

Total 70 

A hog cut into pork loins, belly and short fat backs 
will yield the following percentages of live weight : 

Per cent. 

Loin 9 

Belly 12 

Backs 12 

Shoulders 9 

Hams 12% 

Lard 13 

Total 671/2 

Regular short ribs and rough ribs are made from 
mixed heavy packing hogs, ranging from 300 to 350 
pounds, or even a little heavier. Hogs cut into regular 
short ribs will yield the following percentages of live 
weight : 

Per cent. 

Ribs 37 

Hams 121/2 

Shoulders 8 

Lard 141/2 

Total \ 72 

A hog cut into rough ribs will yield the following per- 
centages of live weight : 

Per cent. 

Rough ribs 371/2 

Hams 121/2 

Shoulders 8 

Lard I41/2 

Total ,... .721/2 



278 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Regular short clears are made from mixed and rough 
heavy packing hogs, and will yield the following per- 
centages of live weight: 

Per cent. 

Short clears 36 

Hams 121/2 

Shoulders 8 

Lard 141/2 

Total 71 

Mess pork is made from rough heavy packing hogs 
averaging about 300 to 350 pounds, and hogs cut into 
mess pork will yield the following percentages of live 
weight : 

Per cent. 

Mess pork 38 

Hams 1214 

Shoulders 8 

Lard I41/2 

Total 73 

Cumberlands are made from smooth light hogs, either 
barrows or good fair sows, and will yield as follows for 
the different average live hogs : 

120-lb. LIVE HOG. 145-lb. LIVE HOG. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Cumberlands 87 Cumberlands 38 

American cut hams. .... .14 American cut hams 14 

Lard 10 Lard 11 

Total 61 Total 63 

170-lb. LIVE HOG. 190-lb. LIVE HOG. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Cumberlands 39 Cumberlands 40 

American cut hams.... 14 American cut hams.... 14 
Lard II1/2 Lard I21/2 

Total 64 Total 661/2 

English long clears usually made from hogs that will 
average 185 to 200 pounds alive, are about the same qual- 
ity as Cumberland hogs, and will yield as follows: 

Per cent 

Long clear 38 

American cut hams 14 

Lard I21/2 

Total .64% 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



279 



In the percentages given it is estimated that the offal, 
such as hair, blood, fertilizer, casings, blade bones, etc., 
will cover the cost of killing and cutting and in figuring 
these tests prices of green meat should be used. In figur- 
ing boxed meats from these green prices allowance must 
be made for shrinkage from green weight to cured, cost 
of boxing, labor, etc. The percentages given are accurate 
on hogs made into these cuts. 

The following tables are -based on tests where one 
side of the hog, weighing forty-four pounds, was made 
into the different American cuts, showing the weights of 




FIG. 102.— HAKD SHORT RIB. 



same, and the prices at time tests were made, also show- 
ing the variations of the same piece or side meat in dif- 
ferent cuts. A careful study of these tests will show 
that it is of the greatest importance ^ to figure and cut 
the hogs to the best advantage. Taking into considera- 
tion the current prices of the different cuts and to see 
that they are converted into the cuts for which they are 
best adapted. 

TESTS SHOWING YIELD OF SIDES. 

Hard short ribs are made the same as standard cut 
short ribs, except that the back bone is left in. Hard 



280 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



short cut ribs cannot be delivered as ^' regular " on the 
Board-of-Trade, but it is a cut that is made very exten- 
sively for southern sale, there being practically no waste 
to the meat cut in this manner : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Hard short ribs 


43 


$0.09675 
.07 
.065 
.13 


$4 1603 


Lean trimmings 


.0175 


Fat " 


.0335 


Tenderloins 


.0325 


Totals 


44 




$4.2428 











PIG. 103.— REGULAK RIB. 



Yield of standard short ribs, which is the standard 
Board-of-Trade cut: 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Standard short ribs 


41^ 

% 
1 


$0,097 
.07 
.065 
.13 
.015 


$4.0498 


Lean trimmings 

Fat " 


.0350 
.0325 


Tenderloins 


.0325 


Back bone ... 


.0150 






Totals 


44 




$4.1648 







PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



281 



Short clears same as short ribs with the spare rib 
removed : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Short clears 

Lean trimmings 

Fat " 


39X 

y^ 
% 

1 

2 


$0.10025 
.07 
.065 
.13 
.015 
.055 


$3.9497 
.0350 
.0325 


Tenderloins 


.0325 


Back bone . . . 


.0150 


Spare ribs 


.1100 


Totals 


44 




$4.1724 



Clear back, same as short clears, with the exception 
of the belly cut off: 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Clear back 


21 X 

17/3 

% 

1 
2 


$0.10075 
.1045 
.07 
.065 
.13 
.015 
.055 


$2.1914 


Clear bellies (dry salt) 


1.8288 


Lean trimming's 


.0525 


Fat " 


.0488 


Tenderloin 


.0325 


Back bone 


.0150 


Spare ribs 


.1100 






Totals .... .... 


44 




$4.2790 







This test same as preceding one, excepting the bellies 
are ribbed instead of leaving in the spare rib. 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Clear back ". 


31^ 
19/ 

Va 
Va 

1 


$0.10075 
.102 
.07 
.065 
.13 
.015 


$2.1903 


Rib bellies (dry salt) 


1.9890 


Lean trimmings . . 


.0525 


Fat " 


.0488 


Tenderloin 


.0325 




.0150 






Totals .... 


44 





$4 3281 







282 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Tliis test is the same as the previous one, except clear 
bellies made for sweet pickle instead of dry salt : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Clear backs 

Clear bellies (sweet pickle). 

Lean trimmings 


31% 

15J^ 
1 
3% 

1 
2 


$0. 10075 
.105 
.07 
.065 
.13 
.015 
.055 


S3. 1903 

1.6013 

.0700 


Fat " 


.1788 


Tenderloin 


0335 


Back bone 


0150 


Spare ribs .... 


1100 






Totals 


44 




$4 1979 








FIG. 104.— SHORT CLEAR. 



Extra ribs same as extra clear, with the exception 
that the pork loin is taken out : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Extra ribs 


34K 

8K 


$0.0965 
.105 
.06635 
.0965 


$3.3393 


Pork loin 


.9031 


Lean trimmings 


.0175 


Fat " 


.0344 






Totals 


44 




$4.2743 







PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



283 



Extra short clears same as extra ribs, except spare 
rib is taken off the belly. 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Extra short clears 


33>^ 

Vi 
% 
1 


$0,097 
.10675 
.07 
.065 
.055 


$3.2495 
.9031 


Pork loins 


Lean trimmings 


0175 


Fat " 

Spare ribs 


.0488 
.0550 


Totals 


44 




$4 2739 







Dry salt fat-backs and dry salt rib-belly constitute 
the cuts in the following test: 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Rib bellies (dry salt) 


16% 

34- 
2 


$0.10275 
.09525 
.10675 
.07 
.065 


$1 7203 


Fat backs " 


1 5716 


Pork loin „ . . . . 


9031 


Lean trimmings 


0175 


Fat " 


.1300 


Totals 


44 




$4.3435 



This following test is the same as the previous one, 
except that the belly has been cleared of the spare rib: 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Fat backs (dry salt) r 


16 >2 

15% 
8}i 

2 
1 


$0.09525 
.10275 
.10675 
.07 
.065 
.055 


$1 5716 


Clear bellies " 

Pork loin 


1.6175 
.9031 


Lean trimmings 


.0175 


Fat " 


.1300 


Spare ribs 


0550 






Totals 


44 




$4.2947 







284 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The following test is the same as the previous one, 
except that the belly is cleared and used for sweet pickle : 



Yield 

Fat backs (dry salt) 

Clear bellies (sweet pickle) 

Pork loins 

Lean trimmings 

Fat " 

Spare ribs 

Totals 



Lbs. 



Value 



16>^ 
14 

8-^4 
% 

1 



44 



fO.09525 
.105 
.10675 
.07 
.065 
.055 



$1.5716 
1.4700 
.9031 
.0525 
.211.3 
.0550 



L2635 




FIG. 105.— CLEAR BACK. 



The following test is the same as for dr}^ salt fat- 
hacks and dry salt rib-bellies, except that fat backs are 
sent to tank for lard : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Fat backs, tank 


15% 
8hi 
1 
2 

16% 


$0.07975 
.10675 
.07 
.065 
.102 


$1.2561 


Pork loins 


.9031 


Lean trimmings 


.0700 


Fat " 


.1300 


Rib bellies (dry salt) 


1.7085 


Totals 


44 




$4.0677 







PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



285 



The following test indicates fat backs to tank and the 
belly clear of spare ribs : 



Fat backs, tank 

Pork loins 

Lean trimming's 

Fat " 

Clear bellies (dry salt) 
Spare ribs 

Totals 



Lbs. 



15% 

8>i 

1 

3 
15% 

1 



41 



.07975 

.10675 

.07 

.065 

.10275 

.055 



Value 



$1.3561 
.9031 
.0700 
.1300 
1.6175 
.0550 



$4.0317 




FIG. 106.— CLEAR BELLY. 



The following test is the same as previous one, excepf, 
that the bellies are cleared for sweet pickle : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Clear bellies (sweet pickle) 


14 

8K 
IH' 
3J€ 
15% 
1 


$0,105 
.10675 
.07 
.065 
.07975 
.055 


$1.4700 


Pork loins ... 

Lean trimming's ... 


.9031 
. 1 0.50 


Fat " 


.2113 


Back fat, tank . 


1.3561 


Spare ribs ~: . 


.0550 


Totals 


44 




$4.0005 



The following recapitulation will show the value of 
the different cuts into which one side of a hog can be 
made the same day. There is not always this variation, 



286 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



possibly, but there is always a great advantage in having 
hogs cut into the cuts for which the carcass is best 
adapted, as well as in watching the market closely and 
having on hand the cuts for which there is the greatest 
demand. It will be noticed from the foregoing tests that 




FIG. 107.— EXTRA SHORT RIB. 

the same weight side of meat made into different cuts 
varies in value all the way from $4.00 to $4.34: 

RECAPITULATION. 
Product Value 

Hard ribs $4.2488 

Standard ribs 4.1648 

Short clear 4.1724 

Baclt and dry salt bellies 4.2790 

Back and dry salt rib bellies 4.3281 

Back and sweet pickle bellies 4.1979 

Extra rib 4.2743 

Extra clear 4.2739 

Dry salt fat backs and dry salt rib bellies 4.3426 

Dry salt fat backs and dry salt bellies 4.2948 

Dry salt fat backs and sweet pickle clear bellies 4.2635 

Fat back (tank) and dry salt rib bellies 4.0677 

Fat back (tank) and dry salt clear bellies 4.0317 

Fat back (tank) and sweet pickle clear bellies 4.0005 



TESTS ON YIELD OF DIFFERENT CUTS. 

There being such a variety of cuts into which hogs 
can be made, and the prices on the various cuts varying 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



287 



at all times, it requires very close attention to see that 
the hogs are cut to the best advantage consequently a 
thorough knowledge of the yield of each kind of cut is 
desirable. While it is not possible at all times to carry 
the ]3ercentages in one's mind, it is wise to have them 
available. 

The following tests show five sides of hogs of dif- 
ferent weights, with the back bone and tenderloin in, 
cut into various cuts, the percentages in this case being 
figured on the weight of the sides of meat : 




FIG. 108.— EXTRA SI-\ORT CLEAR. 



Five rough ribs, weighing 260 pounds, tenderloin in, 
made into extra short clears (Fig. 108) : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five extra short clears 

Spare ribs 


.189 

5 

57 

8 

1 

260 


72.69 
1.93 

21.92 
3.08 

.38 

100.00 


$0.09875 
.08 
.1075 
.0625 
.0775 


$18.66 
40 


Five pork loins 


6.13 


Fat trimming's 


.50 


Lean " 


.08 






Totals... 




$25.77 



Value, $9.91 per 100 pounds. 



288 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



Five rough sides, weighing 260 pounds, with the ten- 
derloin in, made into extra short ribs and pork loins : 



yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five extra short ribs. 

Five pork loins 

Fat trimming's 

Lean " 


194 
57 

8 

1 


74.62 

21.93 

3.08 

.38 


$0.09875 
.1075 
.0625 
.0775 


$19.15 

6.13 

,50 

.08 






Totals 


360 


100.00 




$25.86 







Value, $9,946 per 100 pounds. 

Five rough rib sides, weighing 365 pounds, made into 
short clears : ' 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Short clears , 

Spare ribs 

Tail bones 


330 K 
16 

3K 
8 
5 
o 


90.55 
4.38 

.96 
3.19 
1.37 

.55 


$0.10135 
.08 
,03 
.02 
.19 
.0625 


$33.46 

1.28 

.10 


Back bones 


.16 


Tenderloins 

Fat 


.95 

.12 


Totals 


365 


100.00 




$36,07 







Value, $9.88 per 100 pounds. 

Five rough ribs, weighing 365 pounds, tenderloin in, 
made into regular ribs : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five regular 
Back bones . 


ribs .... 


350 

8 
5 

2 


95.89 

2.19 

1.37 

.55 


$0.0980 
.03 
.19 
.0625 


$34.30 
.16 


Tenderloins 




.95 


Fat . . 




.12 






Totals 


365 


100.00 




$35.53 



Value, $9,734 per 100 pounds. 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



289 



Five rough sides, weighing 280i/^ pounds, made into 
pork loins, clear bellies, from which have been taken out 
the spare ribs and fat backs : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five pork loins 

Five clear bellies 


63 K 
101 

8K 
85 

18K 
3Ji 


22.64 
36.01 

3.03 
30.30 

6.59 
.18 

1.25 


$0.1075 
'.1025 
.08 
.09 
.0625 
.0775 
.07 


$ 6.82 
10.35 


Spare ribs ... 

Five fat backs 


.68 
7.65 


Fat trimmings 


1.16 


Lean " 


.04 


Blade bones ... 


34 






Totals 


280}4 


100.00 




$26.94 



Value, $9.60 per 100 pounds. 




FIG. 109.- RIB BELLY. 



Five rough ribs, weighing 280^^ pounds, with the 
tenderloin left in, made into rib bellies, pork loins and 
fat backs : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


\ 
Per lb. 


Value 


Five pork loins 

Five rib bellies - 

Five fat backs 

Fat trimmings 

Lean " 


63 K 
1093^ 
85 
18 K 

332 


22.64 
39.04 
30.30 

6.59 
.18 

1.25 


$0.1075 
.101 
.09 
.0625 
.0775 
.07 


$ 6.82 

11.06 

7.65 

1.16 

.04 


Blade bones 


.24 






Totals 


280 1<2^ 


100.00 




$26.79 



Value, $9,614 per 100 pounds. 



290 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



Five rough ribs, weighing 268 pounds, made into short 
clear backs (by removing spare rib), leaving pork loin 
on back, and leaving the spare ribs in bellies : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five short clear backs 

Five rib bellies . 


128 

112 

4 

9 
3 
5 


47.76 
41.79 
1.49 
2.42 
3.36 
1.12 
1.87 
.19 


$0.0975 
.101 
.19 
.08 
.0625 
.07 
.02 
.0775 


$12.48 
11,31 


Tenderloins 


.76 


Ribs . . 

Fat trimming's 


.52 
.56 


Blade bones 

Back " 

Lean trimmings 


.21 
.10 
.04 


Totals 


268 


100.00 




$25.98 



r' 



Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds. 



'"^'^mmm^m^ 




FIG. 110.— SHORT FAT BACK. 

Same except removing spare rib from bellies, making 
them clear bellies : 



Yield 


Lbs. 


Per cent. 


Per lb. 


Value 


Five short clear backs 

Five clear bellies 

Spare ribs 

Tenderloins 


128 

105 

7 

4 

9 
3 
5 


47.76 
39.18 
2.61 
1.49 
2.42 
3.36 
1.12 
1.87 
.19 


$0.0975 
.1025 
.08 
.19 
.08 
.0625 
.07 
.02 
.0775 


$12.48 

10.76 

.56 

.76 


Eibs 


.52 


Fat trimming-s 

Blade bones 


.56 
.21 


Back " 


.10 


Lean trimmino's . . 


.04 






Totals 


268 


100.00 




$35.99 







Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds. 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 291 

RECAPITULATION. 

Value per cwt. 

Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into extra short 

clears $9,910 . 

Five rough sides with the tenderloin in, made into extra 

short ribs and pork loins 9.946 

Five rough sides made into extra short clears, this cut 
being the same as the previous one, except that the 
spare rib is removed from the side 9.880 

Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into regular ribs. . . 9.734 

Five rough sides made into pork loins, clear bellies, 
which consist of taking out the spare ribs and fat 
backs 9.600 

Five rough ribs with tenderloin in, made into rib bellies, 

pork loins and fat backs 9.614 

Five rough ribs made into short clear backs by removing 

spare rib on loin and leaving spare ribs in bellies. . . 9.700 

Five rough ribs made into short clear backs, removing 
the spare rib from the bellies, making them clear 
bellies 9.700 

In the foregoing tests the prices were those that were 
in vogue at the time the tests were made. The percent- 
ages, however, are accurate. It will be noted that the 
different cuts vary in value from $9.60 to $9.91, a varia- 
tion of 31c per hundred pounds on the different cuts 
made. From this will readily be seen the advantage of 
cutting hogs into the most desirable cuts, according to 
the market variations. 

SPECIAL TEST ON 1,265 MIXED HOGS. AVERAGE LIVE 
WEIGHT 245 POUNDS. 

In all well-regulated packing houses^ a test is made at 
least weekly, carrying everything through separately, to 
determine the actual profit or loss. These weeklj^ tests 
are of great value -as a guide to the purchaser when 
buying hogs of a quality best adapted to the require- 
ments of his trade and in making the different cuts and 
weights that are selling to the best advantage. The 
following tests on 1,265 live hogs, averaging 245 pounds, 
shows the method in use. It will be noted that this test is 



292 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



carried through carefully, taking the market price on all 
the various cuts. The recapitulation shows the actual re- 
sults at the time the test was made. All percentages of 
cuts of meats shown in the following tables are figured 
on the live weight of hogs : 




FIG. 111.— AMERICAN SHORT CUT HAM. 

HAMS. 



FIG 112.— SKINNED HAM. 



Product 


Average Wt. 
Lbs. 


No. of 
Pieces 


Green 

^\'eight 

Lbs. 


Average 

Price 

Per lb. 


Value 


Amer. cut hams 
Special hams . . 




10 and under 

11—13 

14—16 

18 and over 

(skinned) 

11—13 

14—16 

14 and under 

15 and over 


68 
143 
6.58 
590 
415 
223 
337 

9 
63 
34 


616 
1,740 
. 9,965 
11,114 
7,, 503 
3,892 
5^187 

145 
933 

288 


$0.11375 
.0975 
.0925 
.0925 
.1035 
.10 
.095 

.085 
.0935 

.0875 


$ 70.07 
169.65 
931.76 
1,038.04 
769.06 
289.20 
492.77 


Face and cushi 
bruised tiam 
No. 3 hams . 


on 

3. . 


12.33 
86.30 


No. 2 " 


25.30 






Totals 




3,530 


40,383 


$0.0957 


$3,864.48 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 

SHOULDERS. 



293 



Average 'Wt. 
Lbs. 



No. of 
Pieces 



Green 

Weight 

Lbs. 



Average 

Price 
Per lb. 



Value 



N. Y. shoulders. . 

Rough 

Skinned 

Three rib 

California hams. . 



5M 



and under 



-10 



and over 



Clear plates 

Boneless ham butts 
Jowl " 
Rough " 
Boston " 
Barrel pork 



77 

8 

283 

18 
929 
856 
32-1 

45 



Totals. 



3,530 



680 

202 

2,731 

2.50 

4,705 

5,838 

2,532 

458 

890 

382 

214 

245 

6,703 

1.110 



26,940 



3.0675 
.07375 
.075 
.08 

.06125 

.05775 

.075 

.0425 

.07675 

.075 

.06025 



.$0.0664 



45.90 

14.90 

204.83 

20.00 

828.90 

51.40 
28.65 
9.10 
18.07 
.502.73 
66.88 



$1,791.36 




«««w^aL.. ^^ 



FIG. 113.— NEW YORK SHOULDER. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Product 


Green 

Weight 
Lbs. 


Average 
Price 
Per lb. 


value 


Spare ribs 

Tenderloins -> 

Tails 

Neck bones , 


1,474 
75 
96 

1,012 
296 

7,383 

4,803 


$0.04 
.15 
.02 
.01 
.04 
.04 
.01 


$.58.96 

11.25 

1.92 

10.12 


Blade " 


11.84 


Trimmings 

Feet 


295.32 
48.03 






Totals 


15,139 


$0.0289 


$437.44 



294 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

SIDES. 



Product 



Dry salt fancy bellies. . . . 
Sweet pickle clear bellies 

it a a a 

it II ( i n 

Dry salt clear bellies .... 

Regular short ribs 

Extra " " 

Fat backs 

Back pork 

Back fat (fifty K. R. lard) 

Brisket pork 

Regular loins. 

Totals 



Average 
Wt. 
Lbs. 



4— 6 
6— 8 
8—10 
10—13 
13—15 
18—20 
25—30 
60—70 
30—40 
10—12 
25—30 



No. of 
Pieces 



85 

53 
252 
274 

67 
144 
135 
116 
1,404 
110 

10 



2,414 



Green 

"Weight 

Lbs. 



383 

275 
2,158 
3,059 

893 
2,803 
3,711 
7,731 
52,600 
1,246 

260 
3,330 
5,100 

245 
27.268 



Average 
Price 
Per lb. 



D.ll 
.1075 
.1025 
.095 
.0875 
.07775 
.076 
.072 
.069 
.057 
.065 
.0585 
.057 
.08 
.1025 



Value 



S 42.13 

29.56 

221.19 

288.70 

78.13 

217.93 

282.04 

556.63 

3,629.40 

71.02 

3 6.90 

194.80 

290.70 

19.60 

2,794.97 



5,064 



111,042 



.0787 



?, 733.70 




FIG. 114.— REGULAR DRY SALT SHOULDER. 
LARD. 



Product 


Green 
Weight 

Lbs. 


Average 

Price 

Per lb. 


Value 


Prime steam lard (killing) 

" " " (cutting) 


16,075 
17,059 






Totals 


33,134 


$0.07125 


$2,289.55 




Leaf lard 


7,965 


$0.07 


$ 557 55 







PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 

OFFAL,. 



295 



Cheek and head meat 

Tongues 

Hearts 

Kidneys 

Brains 

Plucks 

Heads 

Ears 

Snouts 



Totals 



No. of 
Pieces 



600 



Green 

Weight 

Lbs. 



1,664 

9.50 

335 

380 

46 

"io2 

25 
985 



4,48"; 



Average 

Price 
Per lb. 



Value 



).03 
.055 
.01 
.01 
.03 
.03 
.035 
.03 
.03 



$ 33.38 

53.35 

3.35 

3.80 

.93 

13.00 

3.57 

.,50 

19.70 



$129.37 



Estimated value of blood and casings at fie per head, $77.10. Added 
to $129.37, the value of the offal, makes a total value of $206.47. 




FIG. 115.— SQUARE SHOULDER. 
RECAPITULATION. 



Product 



Per 
cent 
Yield. 



Lbs. 

Weight 
\ 



Average 
Price 
Per lb. 



Value 



Hams 

Shoulders 

Sides 

Prime steam lard 

Leaf " 

Miscellaneous 

Offal ($0,167 per head). 
No. 1 grease 



13.04 

8.70 

35.86 

10.38 

3.57 

4.89 



Total yield • 75 44 



40,383 
36,940 
111,042 
33,134 
7,965 
15,139 

1,381 



334,884 



.0957 
0665 
.0787 
.07135 
.07 
.289 

.07125 



$3,864.38 

1,791.36 

8,733.70 

2,289.55 

557.55 

437.44 

206.47 

91.37 



$17,971.72 



296 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

NET RESULT: 

12G5 hogs — Net live weight 309,925 pounds at average 

$0.0533 per lb $16,518.90 

— Killing expense 642.50 

13 condemned for No. 1 grease, weighing 3158 lbs. and 
7 condemned for No. 2 grease, weighing 1908 lbs. 

at average, $0.0150 per lb 75.99 

Total $17,237.39 

Gain, $733.33, or 58c per hog, or 23c per 100 pounds alive. 

BARREL PORK. 

This is a part of the packing house business which is 
becoming of less importance year by year. Under former 
methods it was necessary to cure nearly all parts of the 




FIG. 116.— BOSTON SHOULDER AND CALIFORNIA HAM. 

animal, owing to lack of facilities for handling it fresh. 
At that time a great deal of the product was cured in 
packages and disposed of to the consumer in this man- 
ner. But with the increased facilities for handling the 
material fresh, and for getting the meats to their destina- 
tion in a more palatable Eind salable condition, the bar- 
reled part of the product has grown materially less and 
will probably continue to do so. There are, however, for 
certain trades, some cuts, still put into barrels. 

MESS PORK. 

Mess pork (Figs. 117 and 118) is a standard Board- 
of-Trade cut, and although there is comparatively little 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



297 



of it made, it is quoted daily in the market quotations and 
according to its rules and regulations, mess pork packed 
during the season from October 1 to March 31 is known 




FTG. 117.— MESS PORK. 



as " new pork," until the first of January the following 
year. After that date such pork is known as '' old mess 
pork." Mess pork is made from the sides of very fat 




FIG. lis.— PRIME MESS PORK. 



hogs, usually the heaviest and roughest animals being- 
used for this purpose. The hog is split through the cen- 
ter of the backbone and after the shoulders and hams are 



298 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

removed, the sides are cut into strips crossways of the 
backbone, about 6 inches wide, and are packed 190 pounds 
to the barrel, but it is supposed to weigh 200 pounds when 
sold, the gain of pickle making up the difference in weight. 
When it is six months old, it will weigh more than 200 
pounds, and if repacked will make 104 to 105 barrels per 
100 barrels when packed, and should be repacked at 200 
pounds. When number of pieces is not specified, mess 
pork is packed from eleven to fifteen pieces per barrel. 
Short cut mess pork is made from the sides of hogs 
split through the backbone, the bellies having been re- 
moved. It is cut into i^ieces 6 inches wide and packed 




FIG. 119.— CLEAR BACK PORK. 

four tiers to the barrel. This pork consists of the loin 

and fat back and is generally sold for family use. This 

cut is also known as ' ' New York family pork, " " family 

back pork " and '' regular back pork." It is packed as 

follows : 

Heavy grade 25 to 34 pieces 

Next grade 35 " 47 

Medium liglit grade 48 " 55 

Extra light grade 56 " 65 

CLEAE BACK PORK. 

Clear back pork (Fig. 119) is made from the fat backs 
of prime hogs, being free from lean and bone and even 
in thickness. Pieces are cut 6 inches wide at each end 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 299 

and packed four tiers to a barrel. Among the trade in 
some sections this particular cut is called " clear fat 
backs ' ' and ' ' short clear fat backs ' ' and is a very popu- 
lar cut of fat back pork. It is packed as follows : 

Extra heavies 30 to 35 pieces 

Heavies 41 " 50 

Medium 51" 65 " 

Lights 71 " 90 

A second grade of fat back pork is made from the 
shoulder and from the fat backs with the blade bone and 
lean removed, trimmed smooth on the edges. It is some- 
what similar in shape to " Keystone " and is packed as 
follows : 

Extra heavies 19 to 35 pieces 

Heavies 36 " 45 

Medium 46 " 60 

This same cut is also used when a California ham has 
been cut from the shoulder, leaving the blade bone on the 
])ork and making a very desirable piece of meat. It is 
graded practically the same as second grade fat back 
pork. 

BEISKET POEK EIB. 

Brisket jDork rib is made from the briskets of medium 
weight hogs. The pieces are cut 5 inches in width and 
have the rib left in, and is usually packed fifty pieces to 
the barrel. This pork is generally sold for family use 
and is made at times when light bellies sell at a premium 
over heavy ones, the first cut being taken off heavy bel- 
lies, reducing the average weight, thereby increasing the 
value, the piece cut off being used in making this pork. 
It usually runs fifty pieces and upwards to a barrel. 

LOIISr POEK. 

This is made from the end of the pork loin next to the 
hams, having a portion of the tail bone left on it.' It is 



300 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

generally packed fifty pieces and upwards to the barrel. 
This cut is also known as " rump pork " and " ham butt 
pork." This is the cut that is taken off the end of very 
heavy pork loins to reduce their average weight, thereby 
enhancing their value. 

BELLY POEK. 

Belly pork is made from a heavy quality of bellies 
and has the ribs left in. Pieces 5 inches in width are 
packed fifty-one to sixty per barrel. Heavy rough bellies 
are used for this at times when they will net more in 
this manner than when sold as dry salt bellies. There 
is comparatively little demand for this cut. 

BACK POEK. 

Back pork is made from clear fat backs from hogs 
that are free from lean and bone pieces. It is cut 5 
inches wide and packed five tiers to the barrel, as follows : 

Heavies 35 to 50 pieces 

Mediums 51 " 65 

LOIISr CLEAR POEK, 

Loin clear pork is made from the sides of hogs with 
the loin and backbone removed and the belly ribs left in, 
in other words an extra short rib cut into 5-inch widths 
and packed five tiers to the barrel. In the New England 
trade this is known as '^ clear pork." Packed as follows: 

Extra heavies 19 lbs. to 23 lbs. 

Heavies 24 lbs. to 30 lbs. 

DEY SALT MEATS. 

Short Ribs. — This is a regular Board-of-Trade cut 
and is quoted on the market daily. The price of same is 
used as a basis of value for other cuts of dry salt meats. 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 301 

Short ribs are made from the sides of the hog between 
the ham and shoulder, having the loin and ribs in, and 
the backbone removed. Graded usually as follows : 

40 to 45 lbs. average 55 to 60 lbs. average 

45 " 50 " " 60 " 65 " 

50 " 55 " 

Prices vary according to weight. This cut is known 
as " regular short ribs " and is delivered on Board-of- 
Trade transactions. 

Hard Ribs. — These are the same as regulars, except 
that the backbone is not removed. This cut cannot be 
delivered on the Board-of-Trade without the removing 
of the backbone. This is a cut sold largely in the south 
and is made out of the heaviest, roughest hogs. 

Short Clears. — These are the same as short ribs, but 
have the spare ribs and backbone removed. They are 
cut square at each end and graded as to average weight, 
same as short ribs. 

Short Clear Backs. — These are made from the backs 
of hogs with the loin left in, the ribs and backbone re- 
moved. This cut is also known as " lean backs " and 
'' loin backs." Values vary according to average weight 
as follows : ^ 

14 to 16 lbs. average 20 to 25 lbs. average 
18 " 20 " " 25 " 30 " 

Extra Short Clears. — These are made from sides of 
hogs between the ham and shoulders with the rib and 
loin taken out. They are sold on an average from — 

35 to 40 lbs. average 45 to 50 lbs. average 
40 " 45 " '■ - 

Extra Short Ribs.- — These are the same cut as extra 
short clears, in every respect, except that the spare ribs 
are left in the belly. 

Short Fat Backs. — These are made from back pork 
of prime hogs, being free from lean and bone, properly 



302 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



squared on the edges. They are generally quoted as 
follows : 



10 to 12 lbs. average 

14 " 16 " 

18 " 20 " 

20 " 25 " 



25 to 30 lbs. average 
30 " 35 " 
35 " 40 " 



These cuts may be used for tlie domestic trade and 
are usually under twenty-five pounds average in weight. 
The heavier backs are, however, in general practice used 
mainly for the export trade. 




FIG. 120.— LOXG CLEAR. 



Long Clears. — These are made from the sides, hams 
being cut off, backbone and ribs removed, shoulder blade 
taken out, the leg cut off close to the brisket; being the 
entire side of the hog, with the ham and the bones re- 
moved. 

Extra Long Clears. — These are trimmed the same as 
long clears, except that the loin is cut out. 



PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 



303 



Bellies. — These are cut with the sides squared and 
well trimmed on all edges. Graded generally, as follows : 



10 to 12 lbs. average 
14 " 16 " 



20 to 25 lbs. average 
25 " 30 " 



18 " 20 " 

They are cured in sweet pickle, plain pickle or dry salt. 




FIG. 121.— EXTRA LONG CLEAR. 



Regular Plates. — These are made from the end of the 
shoulder when this is cut into California hams, and have 
half of the blade bone with a facing of lean left on. The 
usual weight averages six to eight pounds. 




FIG. 122.— JOWL (DRY SALT BUTTS). 

Clear Plates. — These are the same as regulars except 
blade bones are never trimmed out. 

Dry Salt Butts. — This is a cut made from the fat 
cheek or jowl, trimmed to average from three to four 
pounds each and is a uniform cut of the hog. 



304 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XV. 
CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS. 

CUTTING AND TEIMMING OF HAMS. 

As shown by the tests given on a previous page, Amer- 
ican hams rnn from 12 to IS^/o per cent of the live weight 
of the hog. In the handling of the product there is no 
part of the animal that requires as close and as skillful 
attention as does the ham during the curing process. One 
reason for this is that it is a thick, compact body of meat 
and it takes considerable time to chill it properly; the 
stifle joint, having a large amount of joint water, be- 
comes tainted very soon if the animal heat is not prop- 
erly removed. Another reason is that even if the heat is 
removed, and the curing agent does not get to the in- 
terior of it promptly, decomposition sets in. As before 
stated the first chilling of the carcass has everything to 
do with the curing of this meat. If hams are properly 
chilled in the cooler, the balance of the process is com- 
paratively simple. If they are only partially chilled from 
lack of proper attention or because of improperly con- 
structed coolers, no curing agency in the world will bring 
the hams out in a satisfactory condition. 

When hogs are cut, tho bone of the ham should be 
sawed. In some packing houses they are cut off with a 
cleaver, but the general practice is to saw them, on ac- 
count of the danger of splintering the main bone when 
they are chopped. The foot is next cut off; this opera- 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 305 

tion should also be done with a saw, the bone being sawed 
so as to expose the marrow. On the long cut export hams 
the loot is disjointed. 

The ham is next trimmed, and it requires very skilled 
labor to trim them evenly and regularly. The error that is 
too often made in trimming is that an insufficient amount 
01 flank is left on, the result being that when the ham is 
brought out of the smoke-house the heat will have shrunk 
the flank, thus greatly injuring its appearance. From 
one-quarter to one-half per cent can be made in 
the trimming of hams if the flank is left long, and the 
fat is left on the ham instead of being cut off and sent to 
the lard tank. The same is true of the cushion of the 
ham. The knife should be carried around on an angle, 
taking off as little fat as possible so as to make a prop- 
erly shaped ham and at the same time make it look as 
lean as is possible. The hams should then be graded for 
average and quality, after which they are ready for the 
curing cellar. Several methods are adopted for curing. 

In some instances where hogs are chilled seventy-two 
hours in the cooler, hams go directly from the grading 
bench into the curing vats or tierces. This is not gener- 
ally done, however, as there is always more or less chance 
taken that the cure will not be satisfactory when handled 
in this way, because the hams after being in the chill- 
room seventy-two hours are hard and firm, still they are 
so thoroughly chilled that the pickle cannot penetrate 
quickly enough to prevent decomposition, and the frac- 
tion of one per cent, of sour meats in a house where a 
large volume of business is done runs into money rap- 
idly, causing pecuniary loss, also a loss of reputation. 

Another method, and one which is very generally in 
use, is to shelve hams in a chill room which is held at a 
temperature of 33° to 34° F. and kept there for forty- 



306 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

eight hours to fully eliminate all the animal heat. They 
are then taken from this room and put into vats or tierces 
and the curing agency applied. Better success is attain- 
able in this manner, to the author's knowledge, than in 
the method previously described. 

In some instances they are handled successfully by 
pumping the hams with a pickle before it goes into this 
chill room. The pickle used for this purpose is made by 
taking 150 gallons of plain pickle, adding fourteen pounds 
of saltpetre and four gallons of sirup, or its equivalent 
in sugar, making the x'ickle a gravity of 95 degrees. In 
this case it being believed that the process of curing 
should start immediately after the meats are chilled. 

PUMPING HAMS. 

On the question of pumping hams there are a variety 
of opinions, but on one point everybody seems agreed, 
namely, that the very highest grade of hams should not 
be pumped, and the author believes it is universally ac- 
knowledged in all packing houses that the special, or 
leader, brands are cured without pumping, with a cor- 
respondingly increased percentage of damaged meats. 
A pump similar to that shown in Fig. 123 is used, the 
pickle being inserted around the joint by means of a hol- 
low nickel needle. The needle is put in where the pickle 
is wanted, and with one stroke of the pump the pickle is 
forced into the inside of the ham. It is advisable to 
use a strong pickle, getting as much of the curative 
properties as possible into the ham with a minimum 
amount of water. The following formula is used : 

80 pounds sugar, 
15 pounds saltpetre, 

5 pounds boracic acid, 

5 pounds glycerine, 

with just enough full strength plain pickle added to 
dissolve these ingredients, making the mixture about the 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 



307 



consistency of thick molasses. The hams are pmnped 
with about five strokes of this, viz. : 



Three round the joint, 

One in the body of the ham, 

One near the aitch hone. 



It will be noted from this formula that there is very 
little liquid matter and that nearly the whole amount 
pumped into the hams is of a curing nature. 




FIG. 123.— HAM PUMP. 



In pumping hams care should be used not to pump 
them heavy enough to burst the tissues, and to get as 
much as possible of the ingredient pumped in around the 
stifle joint, as this is the point where decomposition first 
sets in. Each day's cutting of hams should be tested in- 
ternally with a thermometer made especially for this 
purpose to find the internal temperature. Light hams 



308 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

averaging from twelve to fourteen pounds should run 
from 33° to 34° F., heavy hams from 35° to 37° F. Tem- 
peratures higher than those designated are not safe, from 
a curing standpoint, and should be reduced to these points 
before the hams can be safely cured. What is meant by 
'^ safely cured " is the minimum percentage of sour, 
which should run less than one ham in 1,000 pieces. If 
previous directions as to refrigeration, handling, etc., 
are followed closely this condition is possible. 

Another, and in the author's opinion, a very satis- 
factory method of handling hams, before beginning to 
pickle is (providing the hogs have been properly chilled 
in the cooler for from sixt}^ to seven- two hours), as soon 
as they are inspected and graded, to spread them on the 
floor, piling them up carefully, shank down, about 2i4 
to 3 feet high, salt each ham slightly with fine salt, and 
let them lie packed over night in the cooler at a tempera- 
ture of from 36° to 38° F. The next day they are put 
into process of curing. When hogs are properly chilled 
in a dry cooler, they come out more or less dried, and the 
surface of the ham, as well as the rind, is not sufficiently 
porous and open to absorb the pickle promptly, the meat 
being cooler than the curing room. When, however, it 
comes in contact with the fine salt, this causes moisture 
to form on the meat, which opens up the pores, in which 
condition the ham readily absorbs the pickle. 

FORMULA FOR PICKLE WHERE HAMS HAVE BEEN PILED 
IN SALT. 

Inasmuch as the hams have been salted on the floor, 
the pickle should carry correspondingly less salt in cur- 
ing. Otherwise the meat will be too salty. A 75-degree 
plain pickle is as strong as should be used for hams thus 
handled. 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 309 

To a tank holding 1,680 gallons, filled with 75-degree 
pickle, should be added: 

475 pounds granulated sugar, 
90 pounds saltpetre, 
25 pounds bicarbonate of soda. 

This makes a very safe and effective cure. The hams 
when being put down should be ]iumped as follows : 

Five stitches in the siiank; 
Gne on the shank joint; 
One on the aitch bone; 
One on top of the shank; 
Two in the body; 

making a total of ten stitches per ham. The meat should 
be overhauled from one vat to another at the end of five 
days, second overhauling ten days later, pumping at that 
time with three stitches, 

One in the shank, 
One in the body, 
One in the aitch bone. 

It adds greatly to the certainty of the cure of meats to 
be thus pumped. 

FOEMULA FOR HAM PICKLE, WHEflE HAMS HAVE NOT BEEN 
PILED IlSr SALT. 

To a vat containing 1,500 gallons of 78-degree plain 
pickle add: 

400 pounds sugar, 
88 pounds saltpetre, 
25 pounds borax. 

The foregoing formula is used where hams are chilled 
before going into the vats, but are not subjected to an}^ 
salting before being put in pickle. If hams are packed 
in a fine sprinkling of salt, a great deal of the salt ad- 
heres to the ham and this will materially strengthen the 
pickle. This must be taken into consideration in making 



310 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

pickle for curing tiie liams, otherwise tliey would be too 
salty ^ 

CUEING HAMS. 

There are a variety of " cures " as well as methods 
of handling hams while in course of curing, one of them 
being to put the hams in a tierce and when filled, to add 
the following mixture : 

25 pounds salt, 

4 4/10 pounds sugar, 

12 ounces saltpetre, 

4 ounces bicarbonate of soda. 

The tierce after being headed is filled with water at 
a temperature of 38° F. and rolled at least a hundred 
yards before being piled. It should be rolled every five, 
fifteen and thirty days thereafter. 

While this method has been used quite extensively, the 
best results have not been obtained by handling meats 
in this manner. In the first place, tierces are not used 
to the extent that they were a few years ago, curing vats 
having been substituted for them. The vats largely in 
use today are made as follows : 

For 1,500 pounds capacity, 42 inches high, 42 inches 
in diameter at the head, 48 inches in diameter at the bilge 
or center of vat. Thickness of stave 1 inch. Heads li/^ 
inch yellow pine; five galvanized iron hoops, 2 inches 
wide, made from No. 12 iron. Breads to be set flush with 
tlie chime, so that the weight of the contents comes 
directl}^ on the floor. 

Vats of this kind seem to last indefinitely and are much 
cheaper to handle than tierces, saving a large expense in 
coopering, and making it possible to use the space in the 
curing houses to better advantage. Cold storage houses 
should be sufficiently high under the joists, so these vats 
can be double-decked, one setting on top of the other, 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 311 

leaving about 20 inches of space. When handled in this 
manner the space in the cellar is used to much better 
advantage with vats than tierces. 

Into a vat of the dimensions named, should be put 
1,450 pounds of meat. It will take practically sixty-eight 
gallons of pickle to fill the vat on a basis of twenty one 
and one-third pounds of meat to be cured, to each gallon 
of pickle, 

A safer method of curing hams and one which turns 
out the product in a more even and satisfactory manner 
is to make the pickle in large receiving vats, where the 
volume of business will warrant, thereby having an even 
and regular pickle and cure. 

FOKMULA FOR PUMPING PICKLE. 

To a vat holding 1,500 gallons of 80-degree pickle 
add: 

400 pounds granulated sugar, 
80 pounds saltpetre, 
12 pounds borax, 
12 pounds boracic acid. 

The sugar has the effect of toning down the brash 
salt effect in the meat, giving it a more palatable flavor, 
also to a certain extent it aids in curing, although it is of 
small value in that respect. The saltpetre aids in curing 
the meat, and gives it a bright, attractive color. Meat 
which is cured withou.t the use of sali^petre has a dead, 
slatish appearance, which is very unattractive. The 
borax and boracic acid act as adjuncts in this case, 
the borax having the tendency to whiten the meat, giving 
it a bright, attractive appearance. The boracic acid has 
the effect of preserving the pickle, preventing it from 
becoming ropy or out of condition. 

In making the pickle in this manner the vat should 
first be filled with a 78-degree brine by a salometer test. 



312 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The other ingredients should be dissolved in a small vat 
with the same strength brine, it being necessary to heat 
the pickle to dissolve proper!}^ the different ingredients. 
When thoroughly dissolved the contents should be emp- 
tied into the vat of brine, as above stated, and thoroughly 
stirred before using. The pickle should then be chilled 
down to a temperature of 40 degrees F., when it is ready 
for use. Care should be taken in making the pickle, to 
see that the required strength on the salometer is in the 
salt pickle and not in the total strength of pickle. After 
the other ingredients are in, for instance, a 78-degree 
salt pickle with the above ingredients will show 85-degree 
strength, whereas if it were a 78-degree pickle which was 
desired, and the test on the pickle was made after the 
other ingredients were in, there would be, practically, 
only a 71-degree salt pickle, which would be too light for 
safe curing. 

The ingredients added in making the pickle have com- 
paratively little preserving properties, the salt being the 
real preservative. 

SIRUP CUEING. 

The best flavored meats are produced with sirup, in- 
stead of sugar, but meats handled in this way have not 
the keeping qualities that meats have when cured with a 
granulated or light sugar. The sirup also has a ten- 
dency to discolor the meat, making it look less attractive, 
and this, coupled with its tendency to cause fermenta- 
tion, has made the curing of meat with sirup, in large 
concerns at least, undesirable. 

A formula for the use of sirup in a 1,500-gallon vat 
would be as follows : 

88 gallons sugarhouse sirup, 
75 pounds saltpetre, 
25 pounds borax. 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 313 

This will make a dark-colored pickle. Hams turned 
out in this manner are of a very delicate flavor. 

COST OP PICKLE. 

Plain pickle, 78-degree, contains nominally two and 
one-half pounds of salt per gallon, therefore a 1,500-ga]- 
Ion vat of pickle would contain: 

3,750 pounds of salt, at $3.10 per ton (figured time test 

was made) $ 5.81 

400 pounds sugar at 5c per pound . 20.00 

75 pounds saltpetre at 41/2C per pound 3.38 

4 25 pounds borax at 7^c per pound 1.85 

Total cost $31.04 

Cost per gallon, $0.0207. 

Changing prices for the ingredients will, of course, 
alter this cost. 

USING SECOND HAND PICKLE. 

A very wasteful practice in all packing houses, which 
has been done for years, is to throw away pickle as soon 
as the meat is cured. A pickle which will show 78-degree 
strength, to which has been added five to seven degrees 
of sugar, saltpetre, etc., making it 83- to 85-degree when 
used, if tested after meats have been cured, will still 
show a strength of from 52 to 58 degrees, the meat hav- 
ing absorbed the balance of the curative ingredients. The 
remaining ingredients in this pickle, ajre, however, just 
as good, when purified — salt and sugar being the same 
under all conditions — hence when meats are fully cured 
the pickle should be pumped into a vat, in the bottom and 
sides of which are galvanized iron coils. Steam should 
then be turned on these coils heating the pickle by the 
radiation from the pipe. 

After the pickle has been thoroughly boiled for an 
hour or so, it should be allowed to settle, when the par- 



314 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tides of grease, as well as all the albuminous parts, which 
the pickle has drawn from the meat cured, will rise to 
the surface in the form of a thick heavy scum ; this should 
be carefully skimmed off and the pickle again boiled, 
when a second skimming is necessary, after which it 
should be drawn off and cooled and sufficient fresh in- 
gredients added to give it its original strength, when it 
is as useful as ever. For instance, to a vat of 1,500 gallons 
of old pickle, 50-degree strength, add: 

200 pounds sugar, 
38 pounds saltpetre, 
15 pounds borax. 

Figuring on about 2,200 pounds of salt necessary to 
bring the pickle back to its original strength, on the basis 
of the figures in the former test, this pickle will cost a 
little over Ic per gallon, hence it will be seen that, where 
large amounts are used, it is advisable to use the pickle 
over and over until it is used up. 

CALIFORNIA HAMS. 

This is a style of cut made from the shoulder of a hog 
and on the live weight the percentage of shoulder meat is 
about 814 to 10, this being a less valuable part of the hog 
than the ham. It is generally handled in a somewhat 
cheaper pickle; for instance in a formula for ham pickle 
using 400 pounds of sugar to 1,500 gallons, 300 pounds 
of sugar would be ample for California ham curing. It 
is a very difficult piece of meat to cure, especially if the 
hogs are not properly chilled. As the shoulder is one of 
the thickest parts it is the last to chill through. It is the 
general practice to pump California hams before curing 
and in so doing the}^ should be pumped very heavily in 
the veins and under the shoulder blade, this being the 
two places where the meat first shows symptoms of 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 315 

trouble. Otherwise the chilling and general handling is 
practically the same as with other hams. 

SWEET-PICKLE CALIPOKNIA HAMS AND SHOULDERS. 

A successful method of handling and formula for 
curing sweet-pickle California hams and shoulders is as 
follows : 

When green, leach forty-eight hours with sprinkle of 
salt. Pump three times, once in shank, once on top of 
blade, and once below blade. Pump on second overhaul- 
ing with two stitches, once in shank and once in body; 
overhaul same as other hams. For making the pickle for 
California ham use the following formula. To 1,500 gal- 
lons of pickle 75-degTee strength, add : 

300 pounds sugar, 
88 pounds saltpetre, 
25 pounds borax. 

COST MAKING ABOVE PICKLE. 

Salt $ 6.84 

Sugar 13.50 

Saltpetre 3.86 

Borax 1.93 

Labor 50 

Total cost of 1,500 gallons \ $26.63 

Average cost per gallon, $0.0178. 

SKINNED HAMS. 

These are hams usually made from^very heavy hogs, 
which are undesirable on account of their weight and ex- 
treme fat. The fat is skinned off these hams, reducing 
the weight and making them more desirable. Generally 
speaking, hams shrink from 14i/^ to 17 per cent in skin- 
ning. In deciding to do this, of course, the price of heavy 
hams, skinned hams and lard, enter into the question, 
consequently only a careful test, figuring the different 
values of the three items, as well as the weight of hams 



316 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



to be skinned, can determine the x>rofit to be made in 
skinning them. 

The following table shows the ages, in days, at which 
different kinds and weights of sweet pickled hams and 
sides are cured sufficiently to smoke; also at which dif- 
ferent kinds of barrel pork are cured sufficiently to be 
sold; also the cuts which should and should not be 
pumped : 



S. p. hams 



skinned. 



fancy 

fancy 

skinned, 
export . . . . 



' California hams. 

' N. Y. shoulders. 
Bellies 



rib . . . 

Bacon backs 

Belly pork 

Bean " 

Loin '• 

Fat back pork 

Short cut " 

8. P. pork trimmings. 
Brisket pork 



Averag-e wt. lbs. 



1 and under 
10)^—14 

14 —18 

18 —23 

24 

14 —16 

18 

11 —13 



and over 



and over 



14 —16 
10 —14 
14 —18 



—10 
—14 



and under 
and over 



—10 
—12 
— 14 
—16 



Days to 


Davs to 


smoke 


ship 


30 


30 


35 


35 


50 


50 


70 


70 


80 


80 


50 


50 


70 


70 


60 


60 


65 


65 


30 


30 


35 


35 


30 


30 


35 


35 


50 


50 


50 


50 


55 


55 


20 


30 


oo 


22 


25 


25 


30 


30 


35 


35 


25 


20 


30 


30 




15 






15 






15 






15 






15 






15 






15 



Pumped 



Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
No 

No 
Yes 
Y"es 
Yes 
Y'es 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
No 
No 
No 
No 
No 
No 
No 



BOILED HAM. 



Boiled ham is one of the finished products or, in other 
words, products that are ready to be used without addi- 
tional manipulation by the consumer. There is nothing 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 317 

that determines tlie cost of the finished product as much 
as the shrinkage, hence the method that will produce the 
least loss in weight from original to finished product is 
the process desired. 

There are two methods of cooking hams, one is to 
steam them in a retort or some receptacle where they are 
cooked by the heat generated by steam; another is to 
cook them in water. The latter process, from careful 
observation, seems to be the one that gives the best re- 
sults as regards the shrinkage, although steaming makes 
the ham more palatable. Many people wrap the hams 
tightly in cloths or sacks for this purpose, feeling that 
this prevents, in a measure, some of the shrinkage. How- 
ever, the results thus obtained are thought by many not 
to warrant the extra labor and the maintaining of the 
cooking sacks. The hams before being cooked should be 
bound and wrapped with twine, which holds them in 
shape. A form is also used successfully, made of gal- 
vanized iron or tin, having round plates which are put 
into a press, with the ham tightly clamped on the inside. 
The ham is cooked and chilled in this mold. 

The cure of the ham has mu^ch to do with the shrink- 
age and it is therefore preferable to use fully cured hams 
instead of old cured hams, as the shrinkage is much 
greater on over-cured meats. It is also advisable to sort 
the hams as to size, having each vat or t;ank of hams uni- 
form. If not uniform in size there is an excessive shrink- 
age on small hams which are overcooked, if put in the 
same vat with large hams. In all cases the hams should 
be soaked, thereby removing the surplus salt. The length 
and time of soaking depends altogether on the age of the 
meats. The hams should be thoroughly washed and if 
they are to be branded this should be done before they 
are boned or cooked. The method most commonly 



318 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

adopted is to cook the hams first, then smoke very little. 
Some smoke first, boiling afterwards, which is a very ex- 
pensive method owing to the excessive shrinkage. 

RULES FOE BOILING HAMS. 

When hams are boned (if desirable) and wrapped, 
they should be pnt into a vat of water, temperature about 
70° F., and the steam turned on slowly until it reaches 
160° to 165° F, The hams are held at this temperature 
until they are cooked, which requires somewhat longer 
time than when they are cooked by steam at a higher tem- 
perature. A twelve-pound ham will require from four 
and one-half to five hours cooking in this manner. After 
the hams are cooked they should be allowed to cool off in 
the water in which they were cooked; not taken out, or 
drained, or set in the cooler, for in the water in which 
they are cooked are many of the juices of the meat, which 
are again absorbed by the hams as they cool, and the 
shrinkage is much less than if taken out immediately. 
The hams should then be taken to the smoke house, laid 
on racks and given a very light smoke. 

SHRINKAGE IN BOILING HAMS FROM SWEET PICKLE WEIGHT 
TO SHIPPING WEIGHT. 

Hams taken out of pickle and drained for twelve 
hours will show the following shrinkages under favor- 
able circumstances : 

Per cent. 

Hams not boned, smoked after cooking 9 to 12 

Hams with bone out, including the shank bone, skin 

on, not fatted 12i^ to 18 

Hams with bone out, sldn lifted, fat removed 18 to 23 

Hams with bone out, the skin and fat removed 33 to 40 

Hams skinned, fatted, bones left in 28 to 35 

Skinned shoulders, bone out 30 to 35 

ROLLED BONELESS PORK LOINS. 

Use loins cut from stags or heavy loins, the tail bone 
being taken out without cutting through the layer of tis- 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 319 

sue and fat. They should be tiimmed and all bones re- 
moved. 

Cure. — For 400 pounds of meat, use fifteen pounds of 
Deacon salt, four pounds sugar, four pounds borax, one 
pound saltpetre, to one and one-half gallons old ham 
pickle. Have the loins rubbed lightly with the above 
powder and packed in a tierce as tight as possible; the 
one and one-half gallons old ham pickle referred to being- 
sprinkled over each layer of loins as the tierce is filled. 
Loins should be held until they are forty-five days old 
and should be kept at a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. 

Wrapping. — From two to three pieces of loins (ac- 
cording to size) should be wrapped together. They are 
wrapped with seine twine No. 39, with same size double 
hitch as is used for boiled hams. 

Smoking. — Loins are smoked from two and one-half 
to three hours at a temperature of 140° to 180° F. 

Cooking. — Loins are cooked for three hours at a tem- 
perature of 165° to 175° F. They are then placed in the 
cooler, where the temperature is held at 36° to 38° F. for 
twelve hours, after which they are ready for use. 



DEY SALT MEATS BELLIES. 

S 

This particular part of the animal is cured either in 
dry salt or sweet pickle, according to the requirements 
of the trade and the grade or quality of the meat. The 
highest class bacon used in this country is generally 
''dry salt," being specially handled and prepared to 
make the most attractive appearance. A much sought 
for point in bacon is to so prepare it that when fried it is 
of a light color. The only way to obtain this color is to 



320 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

use less sugar in curing, as it causes discoloration in 
cooking; but at the same time it greatly adds to the 
flavor, hence curing by the dry salt method adds to the 
looks, but detracts somewhat from the flavor. AVhen it is 
cured in this way it should be dry packed in air-tight 
boxes lined with galvanized iron, or other material, the 
meat being put down with a fine salt combination, thor- 
oughly mixed as follows : 

75 pounds English salt, 
25 pounds sugar, 
6 pounds saltpetre. 

The meat should be held in this cure about twenty 
days. 

The meats are packed with the rind down, and thor- 
oughly salted, the salt being spread between the layers, 
the top layer being put on with the rind up and the box 
closed, keeping the air from it as much as possible ; meat 
must not be overhauled. It should be fully cured in 
thirty-five days. Meat handled in this manner, as stated 
before, when fried cooks white ; it also has a very bright 
appearance when smoked, but lacks, from an Anierican 
standpoint, at least, the flavor which is obtained in sweet 
pickled bacon. 

In sweet pickled bacon the cure is practically the same 
as for hams, the bellies being put into vats or tierces, the 
ingredients of the pickle being practically the same. 
Heavy or ribbed bellies are cured in dry salt by being 
stacked on the floor, the salt thoroughly rubbed about 
the edges and put on sufficiently heavy for the protection 
of all parts of the meat in the course of curing. Meats 
dry salted should be overhauled in five, ten and thirty 
days after being put down. 

The following table shows the age, in days, at which 
dry salt meat should be cured in order to smoke safely; 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 



321 



also at which to siiip safely; also the cuts that should 
and should not be pumped : 



Product 



Extra short clears 

Short clears 

Extra short ribs . . 
Short ribs 



Bellies 



' ' fancy 

English bellies 

Shoulders 

" English 

Cumberlands 

Dublins 

Long cut hams 

Fat backs 

Jowl butts— 

10 days in brine [ 
10 " " salt S 

Backs , = .... 

Plates 



Averasrc wt. lbs. 



45- 



45— .50 
50—80 
15—17 
18—21 

18 — 23 and over 
4— 6 



Days to 
smoke 



50 
25 
55 
75 
25 
30 
35 
20 
15 
30 
25 
20 
20 
20 
20 

20 

25 
10 



Days to 
ship 



15 
40 
20 
55 
70 
25 
27 
32 
20 
20 
30 
30 
30 
20 



20 



10 



Pumped 



Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
No 
No 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
No 

No 

Yes 
No 



Meats put into a smoke house before they are suffi- 
ciently cured develop a condition known to the trade as 
' ' puffy, ' ' which means that the meats being insufficiently! 
cured when submitted to the heat of the smoke house, de- 
compose and a gas forms which produces the condition 
referred to. 

COST OF CUKING DEY SALT MEATS. 

The following basis was arrived at after the handling 
of several million pounds of product, the market values 
of the year 1900 regulating the price : Labor cost for all 
dry salt meats handled, ten cents per 100 pounds ; curing 
materials, five cents per 100 pounds; insurance taken 
into consideration at $1.50 per $100 on 80 per cent of 
valuation ; interest at 5 per cent on total valuation. 

The various shrinkages taken into consideration on 
each cut of meat, the cost on the foregoing basis is as 



822 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



follows on the different cuts held the number of days 



shown : 



Dry salt short ribs 

clears 

extra short clears. . . 
Cumberland bellies. 



fat backs . . . . 
clear plates. 
regular " 
neck fats . . . 



Average 
wt. lbs. 


Days 
held 


60 


60 


60 


50 


(heavy) 
14-16 


35 
25 


30—3.5 


35 


18—30 


35 




30 




35 




15 



Cost per 
100 lbs. 



).2864 
.3039 
.1119 
.3337 
.1355 
.0480 
.0539 
.1734 
.0524 



Oftentimes in shipping pickled hams in bulk, where 
they are to be for some time on the road, it is advisable 
to use a preservative of some nature to prevent their 
turning slippery or moldy. The following will serve for 
this purpose : 



75 pounds rice flour 

25 pounds powdered borax 



Thoroughly mixed. 



The hams should be rolled and rubbed in this powder 
and afterwards brushed off with a large varnish brush. 
Sufficient of the powder will adhere to the meats to pre- 
vent their becoming slippery during any reasonable 
length of time necessary for shipment. 

CURING OP ENGLISH MEATS. 

There is, at times, a great demand in England for 
American pork products, and the English cuts, as well 
as their methods of curing in many cases, vary from the 
American methods. Comparatively little sweet pickle 
meat is shipped to England, the English taste preferring 
meat cured in dry salt. The following instructions will 
be found useful in curing and preserving diiferent cuts 
of English meats : 

For a pumping pickle use a plain salt brine 100-de- 
gree strong, containing three ounces of saltpetre to the 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 323 

gallon. In pumping Cumberlands (Fig. 124) and shoul- 
ders pump into the blood vein and under the blade, using 
one and one-half to two ounces of pickle in each place, 
and exercising care to lodge the pickle near the bone and 
away from the fat on the side of the meat. 

CURING OF LONG CUT HAMS. 

It is unnecessary to pump long cut hams from Octo- 
ber 15 to March 1. From March 1 to October 15, pump 
under the shank and in the top. Use care to lodge the 
pickle near the bone and away from the fat on the back 




FIG. 124.— CUMBERLAND CUT. 



side of the ham. Views of hams that are included intliis 

heading are shown in Figs. 125, 126 and 127. 

' ■ \ 

COLOR OF ENGLISH MEATS. 

As a great deal depends upon the color of English 
meats, and the trade demands a bright, attractive ap- 
pearance in same, considerable saltpetre is necessary. 
Therefore, from four ounces of saltpetre to the 100 
pounds of meat on cuts weighing from three to five, pieces 
per 100 pounds, to as high as six ounces per 100 pounds 



324 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




FIG. 125.— LONG CUT HAM. 





FIG. 126.— MANCHESTER HAM. 



FIG. 127.— STAFFORDSHIRE HAM. 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 



325 



on smaller cuts, should be used. The salt and saltpetre 
should be thoroughly mixed before applying. 




FIG. 128.— WILTSHIRE SIDE. 



SALTIlsrG. 

On meats not to be overhauled not less than four and 
one-half nor more than five and one-half pounds of salt 



326 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



to the 100 pounds on all cuts excepting long cut liams, 
should be used. On the latter from five to six pounds of 




FIG. 129.— YORKSHIRE SIDE. 



salt per 100 pounds of meat should be applied. In the 
summer months the maximum amounts heretofore de- 
scribed should be used. 




FIG. 130.— STAFFORDSHIRE SIDE. 



On meats overhauled three to three and one-half 
pounds of salt per 100 pounds when putting down, and 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 



327 



three pounds per 100 pounds when overhauling, should 
be used. Kub salt in well under the sides of shanks of 
shoulders, and use plenty on the top of shanks of both. 
In salting sides (this applies to all the various cuts 
shown in Figs. 128 to 134 inclusive), salt the heaviest on 




FIG. 131.— DUBLIN CUT. 



the shoulder and along the loin, rubbing the edges of all 
cuts carefully, seeing that the salt adheres to all parts 
of the meat before it is piled, for if there are places where 
there is no salt on the meat, it will discolor and event- 
ually become slippery and out of condition. 



>, ^ 




FIG. 132.— ANTWERP BACK CUT. 



In stuffing the pockets of long clears and long ribs, do 
not use more than one and one-half times the amount of 
salt on the same area of shoulder or loin. Too much salt 
used in the pockets of the sides gives the meat a burned 
salty appearance and condition. In rubbing the, salt into 



528 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



the ]30ckets with the hand, be careful to put the salt into 
every part, otherwise meat will spoil in places missed 
before the pickle reaches them. 




FIG. 133.— SQUARE EXPORT SHORT RIB. 



PILING. 

Use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the 
air, for they will not develop a desirable color when they 
are exposed to the air. After the meats are all piled 




■""tjwaiJiv 







FIG. 134.— SQU.\RE SHORT CLEAR. 

evenly, the edges should be gone over, and any exposed 
parts covered with a fine sprinkling of salt. 



CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 



329 



OVERHAULIlSrG. 

English middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty 
pounds average, and long cut hams from twelve to four- 
teen pounds and heavier, should be overhauled at from 
eight to twelve days old, salting them as before described. 
Do not overhaul English meats unless necessary in order 
to hold them after they are cured. 

SHIPPING AGES FOR ENGLISH MEATS. 

The following table shows the ages at which English 
meats can be safely shipped during the seasons from 
October 15 to March 1, and from March 1 to October 15 : 



Product 



Bellies 

Boneless backs 

Cumberlands 

Long clears 

Dublms and long ribs 
Long cut hams 



Average 
wt. lbs. 



20—24 

24—30 

30—40 

under 30 

over 30 



10—14 
14—18 



Oct. 15 to 

March 1 

Days 



15 to 25 
15 to 25 
30 to 25 
20 to 25 
25 to 30 
20 to 25- 
20 to 25 
20 to 25 
20 to 25 
25 to 30 



March 1 

to Oct. 15 

Days 



15 to 25 
15 to 35 
20 to 25 
25 to 30 
25 to 30 
30 to 25 
25 to 30 
20 to 25 
20 to 25 
25 to 30 



These ages for shipping should be followed closely, 
but when necessary the following exception may be 
made without detriment. 

From October 15 to «March 1, shortest shipping age 
may be reduced five days. * 

PACKING or ENGLISH MEATS. 

Meats to be packed in borax, cured as above, should 
be put in a plain cold pickle 100-degree strong, then 
scraped on the skin side and wiped with cloths wrung out 
of hot water. If the meats are old and have a slippery 
appearance, they should be scrubbed with a brush in 
warm pickle and wiped afterwards. They should then 



530 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



be rubbed in borax with the rind placed upon a grating 
and the surplus borax brushed off the skin side of the 
meat, using a fine brush for so doing. It is customary 
to use from five and one-half to six and one-half pounds 
of borax per 300 pounds of meat. Meats to be packed 
in salt should not be washed. The skin and edges of the 
meat should be thoroughly scraped and then rubbed in 
fine salt before being put in the boxes. For sizes and 
styles of shipping boxes see Chapter XXIII — "Boxes 
and Cooperage." 



YIELDS LONG CUT HAMS AND CUMBERLANDS. 

The following table shows the percentages of yields 
of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and 
Cumberlands, also average weights : 



Av. wt. 










Per cent 








live 


Average weig 


It 




Per cen( 


Cum- 


Per cent 




Per cent 


hogs, 


cuts, lbs 






hams 


ber- 


miscellaneous 


total 


lbs. 










lands 








190 


j Long cut, 
I Cumberlands 


16- 
36- 


-18 [ 
-42 f 


18.37 


40.43 


( P. S. lard 
•] Eaw leaf 
( Trimmings 


9.86 ) 
3.59 - 
1.92 ) 


73.97 


168 


( Long cuts 
( Cumberlands 


14- 


-16) 

-38 \ 


18.66 


39.17 


P. S. lard 
■I Raw leaf 


7.42 
3.30 ]- 


70.47 












( Trimmings 


1.92 ) 




136 


j Long cuts 
I Cumberlands 


13- 
24- 


-14) 

-28 f 


18.4.5 


37.48 


1 P. S. lard 
-} Raw leaf 
( Trimmings 


8.48 
3.38 [ 
1..5.5 ] 


69.34 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 331 



CHAPTER XVL 
THE SMOKE HOUSE. 

THE HANDLING OF MEATS IN THE SMOKE HOUSE, 

The smoking of bacon meats is the last process 
through which they are put before placing them upon 
the market, the term '^ bacon," applied to any brand of 
meat, meaning that it is smoked. 

The smoking of meats is a very ancient method 
adopted for their preservation for future use. All meats 
which are smoked are more or less impregnated with 
saltpetre. The saltpetre lies dormant to a certain extent 
after penetrating the meat, but as soon as the latter is 
exposed to the warm temperature in the smoke house its 
curing properties become active. This, in connection 
with the tannic acid which is developed in the smoking 
process and deposited on the meats, forms a preserving 
agency which prevents decomposition for a considerable 
period, varying according to the temperature and con- 
ditions to which the meat is subjected. The methods 
used in smoke houses are practically unchanged today, 
except in a mechanical way, as compared with former 
ti-mes. 

SOAKING MEATS FOR THE SMOKE HOUSE. 

When meats are ready for the smoke house, they are 
first soaked in fresh water. This is done to remove the 
surplus salt, making the meat more palatable, and also 



332 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

to give it a better appearance, for if it is not properly 
soaked the salt leaves a white crust on the surface. Meat 
over-soaked has a water -logged condition and often be- 
comes water-sour when exposed to the necessary heat 
for smoking, also moulds quickly after smoking, hence it 
is essential that this part of the work receives careful 
attention. 

The best results from soaking are obtained by using 
soaking water at a temperature of 65° F., for at this 
temperature the salt is dissolved to the best advantage, 
without unduly softening the meat. A soaking schedule 
that will be found to give excellent results is as follows : 

TIME REQUIRED TO SOAK MEATS. 

Hams at full cured age. .2 hours (3 min. for each day older) 
Bellies, 8-10 lbs., 20 days IVs " (3 " " " " " ) 
Bellies, 10-12 lbs., 25 days 11/2 " (3 " " " " " ) 
Bellies, 12-16 lbs., 30 days 11/2 " (3 " " " " " ) 
Dry salt meats 1/2 " (except bellies, two hours) 

If meats still show salt after smoking change water 
once, as the fresh water will take up salt rapidly. It will 
be found better to change water than to soak longer. 

METHOD OF HANDLING MEATS IN A SMOKE HOUSE. 

After the meats have been soaked and hung in the 
smoke house, they should be allowed to hang from three 
to seven hours, or until they have stopped dripping, 
for if the smoke is applied while the meats are still drip- 
ping, wherever one piece of meat is subjected to the drip- 
ping of another, the smoke fails to take effect, giving the 
meats a striped and discolored appearance. After the 
meat has had time to thoroughly dry, fire should be built 
in the smoke house with either maple or oak wood (par- 
tially green being preferred) and the temperature brought 
up to from 112° to 118° F., and maintained until the 
surface of the meat has become thoroughly dried and has 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 333 

a partially glazed appearance. As soon as this effect is 
noticed, which will be in five to eight hours, hardwood 
sawdust should be added, which will form a dense, pene- 
trating smoke. At the same time the temperature should 
be gradually increased in the smoke house, or brought 
up to from 115° to 120° F. 

A pile of sawdust, quantity depending upon the size 
of the smoke house used, should be raised in the center 
of the house and a few burning brands of wood laid 
around it. These will cause the sawdust to ignite and a 
small fire, producing a great deal of smoke, will result 
therefrom. If the sawdust is put on a fire already burn- 
ing much of the sawdust will go up through the house in 
the form of a light ash, which is deposited upon the meat, 
injuring its appearance. 

A house of sweet-pickle meats should be smoked for 
about twenty-four to thirty hours, to get good results, 
and afterwards be allowed to stand for twelve hours with 
the ventilators open, to give the meat a chance to thor- 
oughly cool off. 

TEMPEEATURES IN SMOKE HOUSE. 

The following temperatures will be found to give very 
satisfactory results in smoking and while it will be found 
impossible to adhere to them absolutely, it is advisable 
to do so as closely as possible during the smoking period : 

3 hours in smoke. . .107°F. 18 hours in smoke. . .118°F. 



6 

9 

12 

15 



.114=^. 21 

.116°F. 24 

.118°F. 27 

.119°F. 30 



.120°F. 
.118°F. 
.119°F. 
.115°F. 



It should be the aim to have the house at a temper- 
ature of 118° F. after twelve hours, and it should be held 
at that if possible. 

Meats thus handled will be found to have a light am- 
ber color which indicates a light smoke, whereas a dark 



334 



r 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

rr 



-37- 



\\-- 



ff 









ASSEHBlY VIEW OF RACK 




l";X4"x,2!- 



't' 'i' IVibHOIt. 



.lH0Ld M4"C ,C 1 J 4^-^ 

NCOUT CFNTeFhOLE. T -4 i. 



lis I 6PflcbOLE5^n£CM 
T r LEflUINOOUT CENTEI? H 



ie 



5^ 



^ 



XXjIf V ^Ir 



4 5y4CHANNEL 2 Pes pe r Rack 




7'4" 



.1 J,0«'l 



r!i 



:■ |«i I2-I4 ^ I ^ 
t' PLANS OT THREE. 5TYLE5 OF RAC KS 

FIG. 135.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL SMOKE HOUSE RACK. 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 335 

amber would indicate a heavy smoke. The color of the 
meats should be regulated by the requirements of the 
trade. 

AVlien the meats are smoked, the fire should be put 
out, the house opened up, giving it a free circulation of 
air, and the meats allowed to thoroughly dry and cool 
before being removed. Smoked meats should be handled 
as little as possible, for every time they are handled or 
piled on trucks, it detracts somewhat from their appear- 
ance. They become greasy and soon lose their bright, 
attractive appearance. Intelligent and up-to-date smok- 
ers, recognizing this condition, are fitting their houses 
largely with what is known as a ^'trolley system"; the 
meats being hung, when soaked and washed, on a rack 
which is operated by this system, and are run from there 
directly into the smoke house. 

Fig, 135 illustrates a conveniently arranged smoke 
house rack and Fig. 136 gives details of a double truck 
for smoke house racks where a heavy load is to be car- 
ried on trolley. 

After being smoked and cooled, the meats are run to 
the packing bench, and are never handled from the time 
they are washed, ready for smoking, until they are in- 
spected and packed ready for shipment, thereby preserv- 
ing a very desirable appearance, as well as greatly re- 
ducing the cost of labor in operation. 

SHKINKAGE IN SMOKE HOUSE. 

Shrinkage is a matter which requires a great deal of 
attention. The aim is to smoke out the meat as near green 
weights as possible, the amount of shrinkage depending 
largely upon the requirements at points to which meats 
are to be shipped and the conditions to which they are to 
be subjected. For instance, hams and shoulders which 



336 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



are to be used for immediate consumption should smoke 
out 98^ to 100 per cent green weight, whereas meats 
which are to be held for some length of time after being 
smoked, or which are intended for a warmer climate, will 
smoke out from 95 to 97 per cent of the green weight. 
Meats, which are to be shipped south or to a warmer 




FIG. 136.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL OF DOUBLE TRUCK FOR 
SMOKE HOUSE RACK. 



climate, or are to be held for a considerable length of 
time before being consumed, should be smoked dark, 
with a correspondingly heavy shrinkage. Excess shrink- 
age merely means the evaporation of an additional 
amount of moisture, thereby preventing early decompo- 
sition. 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 337 

Meats, which are to be consumed immediately and not 
shipped to a warm climate, may carry more moisture and 
hence show less shrinkage. At the same time they have 
a much finer and more attractive appearance. This is a 
matter to which an owner or manager of a smoke house 
must necessarily give minute and close attention in order 
to obtain the best results. 

In many cases, where meats are to be used immedi- 
ately and consequently a light shrinkage is desired, they 
are colored, giving them an appearance of a heavy smoke, 
whereas they are smoked comparatively little. In this 

I'-S'TeAi^ PIPE 



— * 

.i 



^ ^COLORINO WATER L WET \^ 

I ... I 

COLORING VAT. 
FIG. 137.— OUTLINE SKETCH OF COLORING VAT. 

case the meats are dipped in a colored water composed 
of the following ingredients : 

FORMULA FOR COLORING SWEET PICKLE MEATS. 

2 ounces boracic acid, 

2 ounces alum, ^ 

Vz pint alcohol, 

8 ounces carbon. 

Mix in thirty gallons of hot water. Use sufficient to 
color immersing water the desired shade for the meats 
to be dipped. 

By simply immersing the meat to be smoked in this 
water before it goes to the smoke house, gives it the ap- 
pearance of having been heavily smoked, thereby saving 



338 tHE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

the shrinkage whic?i would ottier-wise follow. The color- 
ing water should be used according to color desired for 
meatSj by putting a small amount of it into a tub of clear 
water and immersing each x^iece of meat in the tub be- 
fore hanging it in the smoke house. Do not allow the 
meat to soak or lie in the water ; immerse it and hang it 
up immediately. 

FOBML'LA FOB COLORING SWEET TICKLE SIDES TO AVOID 

SMOKI3fG. 

TTjis formula is used for coloring skins only, con.se- 
fiuently is used almost exclusively on bacon, sides and 
bellies: 

2 fiuarts alcohol, 

10 ounces Massaka E. 

ilix well and let stand twelve hours, then cook well and 
add — 

3 quarts; glycerine, 
.50 gallons* water. 

About two quarts of this mixture is required to a col- 
oring vat or tub that will hokl three barrels of water, the 
water being held at a temf^erature of 00 - F. by using a 
steam coil in the tub. ITie vat shown in Fig. 137 consists 
of a shallow basin a foot deep with a j>erf orated steam 
coil in the bottom. Tlie coloring water which is used to 
color the rind of the meat, comes about an inch above the 
wor^den rack shown in bottom of vat. Tlie meats are laid 
on this rack and only the rinds of the meat come in con- 
iar;t with the coloring water. 

SHRINKAGE TX SMOKE TfOrSE TEST. 

Tlie following table shows the result of actual tests 
on 1,1'i^il ponrKl'-; of meat hung In smoke house for seven 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 339 

conseeutive days, temperature of smoke lionse about 
9<>^ F.: 

Weight when fully smoked 1.1S6 

24 hourii later 1.129 

24 " • 1.121 

24 " " 1.114 

24 " " i.::-> 

24 -^ -^ ia05 

24 laoo 

Thirry-s;ix pownds shrinkage in seven days' hansrinar. 
rAPKK FOR WRAPPING SMOKED MKATS. 

Another very important item is the paper used for 
wrapping smoked meats. A desirable paper is one which 
will keep out the air and moisture, thereby preventing 
molding and at the same time will not absorb the grease 
from the meat, whioh would cause shrinkage — ^nor should 
it stick to the meat when taken ol¥. Papers having thei^e 
qualities can be bought in sheets, 2S x 82 inches in size, 
desirable paper generally running about seven sheets to 
the pound. Where meats are wrap\>ed they are sold 
gross weight, paper and meat. 

C AX V AStX G M EATS. 

The methods employed in the process of canvasing 
cured meat requires careful suvH^rvision in order to pre- 
serve it in a satisfactory manner, bleats which are to 
be shipped a long distamv, or which are to be used in a 
warmer climate, or must necessarily l>e exposed to a 
high temperature for some time before Wing used, should 
in all cases be protected by a covering. If not they will 
mold or become tly-blown and thereby become valueless. 
.\ method has therefoiv been adopted of covering the 
meat with canvas, and either yellow- or white-washing 
same. 

Many experiments have been tried in late years to 
make a g\>latine sohitiou into which meats can be dipped 



340 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

after being canvased, thereby forming an absolutely air- 
tight encasement, but these experiments have not re- 
sulted satisfactorily and the use of the older and well 
tried remedy of white- washing, or yellow-washing, is 
still followed. 

WHITE WASH FOR MEAT CANVAS. 

The meats to be white-washed should be thoroughly 
cooled and dried after coming from a smoke house. 
They are then wrapped in regular ham paper, next in 
white parchment paper and then sewed up in a cheese 
cloth covering (using a strong cheese cloth for this pur- 
pose). Canvasing cloth should be 36 inches wide and 
weigh one-quarter pound per yard. The hams are then 
dipped in a solution composed of the following: 

1,200 pounds floated barytes, 
90 pounds flour, 
140 pounds water, 
63 pounds white ham wash glue, 
1 teaspoon blueing. 

The glue should be cooked and strained through a 
piece of cloth before being added to the solution, as there 
is liable to be more or less sediment in the glue, which 
should be removed, after which mix with the flour; let 
stand about twelve hou:rs, then add the barytes, using hot 
water in mixing. After it is mixed add the blueing. 

This material should be put in a tub, held at a tem- 
perature of 90° to 100° F., into which the canvased meats 
are to be immersed. After being dipped they are hung 
up over the tub while an attendant rubs his hand over 
them, taking off the surplus material which has adhered 
to the package, and at the same time forcing the open- 
ings in the cloth full of the wash. They should next be 
brushed over witli a heavy paint brush, smoothing off 
the surface, and then hung in a dry-room to dry. 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 341 

After being allowed to hang for eight to ten hours, 
nntil the wash is thoroughly dry and has hardened, they 
are ready for shipment. This method is adopted in the 
largest packing houses for the handling of hams, shoul- 
ders, and bacon, for shipment to the Philippines and the 
far east, and has been found to be the safest and most 
satisfactory one yet discovered. 

YELLOW WASH TOR MEAT CANVAS. 

This is practically the same as white wash, except 
that a chrome yellow color is used, and the mixture will 
have a yellow instead of a white shade when finished. 
Handle same as white wash for meats. A formula for 
yellow wash is given as follows : 

1,200 pounds floated barytes, 
210 pounds whiting, 
195 pounds water, 
114 pounds lemon yellow, 
35 pounds joiner's glue. 

This is used at a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. 
As all meats canvased are sold gross weight, the 
barytes is added to give an additional weight to the meats 
which are canvased. 

The following tests will show the cost -and gain in 
yellow washing: 

CANVASING 1,031 HAMS. 

325 yards sheeting at 4%c |15.84 

3% yards Andover twine at 30c 1.12 

274 yards paper at l%c 4.32 

One man three hours at 17%c per hour 52 

Sewing at $1.10 11.34 

Cost of canvasing $33.14 

445 pounds wash ^at 2.1c $ 9.34 

1,031 labels at $1 per 1,000 1.03 

Eight men tv/o hours twenty-eight min., seven 

men thirty-five min 4.11 $14.48 

Total actual cost $47.62 

Weight before canvasing 10,550 lbs. 

Weight after canvasing 11,041 lbs. 

Weight after washing 11,^86 lbs. 



342 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

It will be noted from the previous test that there was 
a gain of 936 pounds in canvasing these hams, at a cost 
of $5.09 per 100 pounds. As hams always sell at a much 
higher price than this, the difference would represent the 
profit in this operation. 

SMOKTNG DRIED BEEF. 

Dried beef is an article which has to be smoked 
heavier, consequently dried more, than pork hams, and 
unless the moisture is well evaporated the time it may be 
kept will be short. An approved method for handling 
dried beef is as follows: 

Steam coils should be placed at the top and also at 
the bottom of the smoke house. The steam should be 
turned on until the temperature of house is between 
130° and 140° F. After the meat has hung in this tem- 
perature about thirty hours, a light fire should be started, 
by using two or three sticks of wood, and plenty of liard 
wood sawdust scattered close to the fire, so as to form 
a dense smoke. It is very essential that dried beef 
should have a strong smoked flavor. Steam should be 
kept on the house all the time the beef is being smoked 
and it will require eighty to ninety hours under these 
conditions to bring the beef out in the best condition. 

Beef can be smoked in a regular house, but it takes 
much longer and it cannot be handled as satisfactorily 
as with steam heat in connection with the smoking 
process. 

After the meat is sufficiently smoked the house should 
be allowed to cool off, and the meat to hang for about 
twenty-four hours before being handled. It is then ready 
for packing and shipping. Dried beef thus handled will 
shrink about 28 to 33 per cent from the cured weight to 
the smoked weight. 



THE SMOKE HOUSE 



343 



The following test will show the shrinkage on 100 
pieces of dried beef hams, also the shrinkage each 
twenty-four hours after: 

SHRIXKAGE ON DRIED BEEF. 

100 pieces, cellar weight 1,184 lbs. 

After smoking 85 hours 812 lbs. 

24 hours later 806 lbs. 



24 
24 
24 
24 
24 



793 lbs. 
781 lbs. 
762 lbs. 
755 lbs. 
750 lbs. 



344 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XVII. 
DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. 

INTEODUCTOEY. 

There is probably no department in the packing house 
where there is more diversity of methods followed than 
in the sausage room. The business of sausage making 
is a very old one, and was largely developed in European 
countries, where on account of the extremely low wages 
and the high prices for meats it was necessary for the 
poorer classes to make the cheaper meat products into 
an edible article. A good sausage maker is much like the 
frugal wife, both make very palatable dishes out of scraps 
that would otherwise be useless. 

In the handling of animals in large numbers, many 
wholesome meat products are left which are not palat- 
able in their original condition. Cheek meat, hearts and 
various trimmings are as wholesome as a porterhouse 
steak, but not so palatable, at least, in their original 
condition; hence, the art of sausage making consists in 
taking these low priced products and making from them 
a palatable, wholesome and at the same time economical 
article. 

It is the author's intention to go into this depart- 
ment in detail, giving the most minute and practical in- 
structions in the general handling of all kinds of sausage, 
including the curing and handling of the fresh products 
and also the preservatives that are used in their manu- 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 345 

facture, as well as formulas giving the different kinds 
of meat, seasonings, etc., and the most modern devices 
for the economical and profitable handling of the product 
in this department. 

PRESERVATIVES. 

One of the most important items entering into the 
preparation of sausage meat is the addition of some pre- 
servative or preventive of decomposition or fermenta- 
tion, which, while it serves to keep the meat in a whole- 
some condition, is at the same time perfectly harmless, 
tasteless and odorless. Preparations for this purpose 
are known under the general term of '' preservatives." 
There are mam" opinions as to the ingredients which 
should be used in |)reservatives, and there is no doubt 
that, at least in some cases, ingredients are used which 
are detrimental to health, but generally speaking, those 
used for purposes of this kind consist of borax, boracic 
acid and common salt, and many i)reservatives which are 
offered for sale on the market are nothing more than the 
mixture in various degrees of these three ingredients. 
The use of improper ingredients is a serious detriment 
to the sausage, and the formulas hereinafter given are 
some that have been compiled after years of careful 
study and experimenting. 

In order to prepare preservatives special care should 
be taken to obtain pure chemicals. A great saving can 
be made, and better results usually obtained from one's 
own compositions. ^ 

The following is a ver^^ reliable formula for a 
preservative for all kinds of cooked sausage, including 
New England pressed ham: 

72 pounds powdered borax, 

10 pounds boracic acid, 

18 pounds very fine salt. ' 



346 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The foregoing formula should be mixed thoroughly and 
four to six ounces used to 100 pounds of meat. 

PRESERVATIVE FOR PORK SAUSAGE. 

One of the best preservatives for pork sausage known 
is prepared by using one and one-quarter ounces of sul- 
phite of soda, mixed with the salt required, to 100 pounds 
of sausage meat. It not only preserves the meat, but 
also the color, and prevents the sausage to a greater 
extent than any other preservative from turning dark 
inside or near the casing. In buying this article, it should 
not be purchased in large quantities and should be kept 
in air-tight packages, such as a screw-top jar, for if ex- 
posed to the air, it will turn to sulphate of soda and 
produce the opposite eifect upon the meat. 

There are many pork sausage preservatives sold on 
the market that are nothing else than the above under a 
fancy name. This preservative is used for pork sausage 
only and should never be used for cooked sausage. 

PRESERVATIVE FOR PACKI]SrG FRESH BEEF, PORK HEARTS, ETC. 

A preservative for packing fresh beef and pork hearts, 
liead meat, beef and pork cheek meat, giblets and weas- 
and meat is made according to the following formula. 
For one tierce, or 400 pounds of meat, use the following 
ingredients, thoroughly mixed : 

15 pounds salt, 
2 pounds sugar, 
4 pounds borax, 
1 pound boracic acid, 
11/^ pounds saltpetre (no pickle). 

The beef and the pork hearts and other meats men- 
tioned above should be thoroughly washed in a mild 
pickle so as to remove the blood and slime before pack- 
ing in the tierce, as the above formula is used for dry 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 347 

packing only. Head, cheek and giblet meat should not 
be put into ice water when cut off on the killing floor, 
but should be promptly removed to a cooler where the 
temperature is 36° to 40° F., and spread or hung up on 
racks made for the purpose, to refrigerate. 

Care must be taken not to allow these meats to accu- 
mulate in any bulk while warm. 

All dry packed meats should be packed tightly enough 
in the tierce to entirely exclude the air regardless of 
weight. This is a very particular point and should be 
observed closely. 

After the trimmings or offal have been washed and 
chilled, the preservative or mixture, as described above, 
should be mixed thoroughly with the trimmings. This 
is accomplished more satisfactorily by mixing them in 
a box or on a table where fifty to one hundred pounds 
of meat can be handled at a time. When this quantity 
has been mixed with the preservative, the trimmings 
should be put in a tierce (first seeing that both tierce and 
trimmings are absolutely dry), and pounded down as 
tightly as possible with a mess pork pounder and the op- 
eration continued until the tierce is as full as possible, 
allowing for the head to be put on. Before heading up 
spread a cheese cloth or thin cotton cloth over the top 
to protect the trimmings from the head and also from 
any air that might leak through from poor coopering. 

The tierce is then headed up and removed to cold 
storage, where the temperature must be kept as near 
40° F. as possible from thirty to forty-five days, when 
the trimmings are ready for use. If it is desirable to 
keep the product four to six months, after it has been 
in the temperature above mentioned for thirty to forty- 
five days, remove to a lower temperature; 32° to 34° F. 
If trimmings are properly handled in the above manner, 



348 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

they can be kejDt from one season to another without 
spoiling. 

PEESEEVATIVE FOR PORK AND BEEF 

TRIMMII^GS. 

For one tierce of 400 pounds use the following mix- 
ture : 

15 pounds salt, 
4 pounds sugar, . 
4 pounds borax, 

1 pound saltpetre, 

2 quarts old ham pickle, which must 

be sweet and in good condition. 

Pork and beef trimmings should be fresh, and if they 
have been packed in barrels, the blood should be allowed 
to drain off before being packed in the preservative, as 
above mentioned. They should not be washed in pickle 
before being used, but should be handled dry if possible 
and packed the same as described in the foregoing form- 
ula for other trimmings and handled the same in re- 
gard to temperatures, etc. 

The two quarts of old ham pickle mentioned in the 
above formula should be sprinkled through as uniformly 
as possible when pounding the trimmings down into the 
tierce. 

CURED PRODUCTS USED IN MAKING SAUSAGE. 

The following products are used in sausage making 
after they have been pickled or cured. They have little 
value except in the cured condition, hence it is neces- 
sary, in order to make use of them and put them in a 
marketable condition, to first cure them: 

Pork snouts. Pork ears. 

Pork hearts. Pork tails. 

Pork cheeks, Beef hearts. 

Pork skins. Beef cheeks. 

Pork heads. Ox lips. 

Pork hocks. Sheep hearts. 

These products should be thoroughly chilled by 
spreading them out on racks and placing them in a chill 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 349 

room having a temperature of from 35° to 38° F. They 
should be turned over while being chilled, so that the 
animal heat has a chance to get out of them. After 
being thoroughly chilled for from twenty-four to thirty- 
six hours, they should be put into vats or tierces with 
an 80-degree plain pickle, sprinkling the meats with about 
eight ounces of saltpetre to the 100 pounds, 

A wooden frame or weight is placed on the product 
in order to keep it immersed in the pickle. It is cus- 
tomary to cure these meats in vats or hogsheads, using 
the following quantities of pickle : 

1,400 pounds of meat will require 54 gallons of pickle 
1,000 " " " " " 42 

800 " " " " " 36 

The meats should be kept in a cellar during the 
pickling process, with the temperature ranging from 38° 
to 40° F., and overhauled every five, ten and fifteen days 
in order that all the pickle may thoroughly penetrate 
the meats. The different kinds of meats will be found 
to be sufficiently cured after being in pickle the following 
number of days : 

Pork snouts ^ 25 to 30 days 

Pork hearts 25 to 30 " 

Pork cheeks 25 to 30 " 

Pork skins 10 to 15 " 

Pork heads 35 " 

Pork ears 10 " 

Pork hocks ^. 25 " 

Pork tails 10 " 

Beef hearts 25 to 30 " 

Beef cheeks 25 to 30 " 

Ox lips 20 " 

Sheep hearts T 25 to 30 " 

SAUSAGE FILLEBS. 

This is a very important factor in the manufacture 
of sausage. The province of '' fillers " is to absorb 
water, thereby preventing shrinkage, and while this is 



350 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

advisable to an extent, if it is overdone, it detracts from 
ihe quality of the product. The luain base ingredients 
for tillers are rice flour, corn flour and potato flour. 
There are many sausage fillers on the market but the 
foregoing ingredients are most frequently used. 

Potato flour or starch is not used to any extent today, 
manufacturers finding that there is a great deal of trouble 
attached to the manufacture of sausage containing these 
ingredients, on account of the liability to sour and spoil. 
Corn flour is the best filler that can be used, being less 
liable to ferment, while it absorbs the water quickly. 
Some of the best known fillers are nothing more or less 
than corn flour under another name. While fillers are 
used to a great extent, the sausage manufacturer should 
remember that the quality of sausage is deteriorated 
proportionately to the amount of water that is worked 
in. Hence fillers should be used with discretion by man- 
ufacturers who aim to make a reputation for their goods, 

SMOKE HOUSE AEEAISTGEMEISITS FOR SMOKING DOMESTIC 

SAUSAGE. 

The smoking of sausage cuts a very important figure 
in its manufacture. A great deal of bad sausage on the 
market is so because it is injured in the smoking and it 
is particularly essential that this part of the work be 
given careful attention. There are some mechanical im- 
provements which have been adopted of late years which 
aid materially in reducing the expense of manufacture, 
but the original principles involved are not in any way 
changed. The methods in vogue today for the econom- 
ical handling of the smoke house are illustrated in Figs. 
138, 139 and 140. 

The arrangement of the smoke house used for smok- 
ing domestic sausage is, of course, the first important 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 



351 



feature. The liouse should "be constructed so that the 
sausage can be smoked with a great deal of heat or with 




FIG. 138.— DIAGRAM SMOKE HOUSE SAUSAGE STACK. 

cold smoke. However, in the manufacture of this prod- 
uct the major part of the sausage is smoked with a mod- 
erate heat. 



352 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The modern smoke houses that are used for this pur- 
pose are built so that the sausage can be removed from 
the house, as necessity requires, on a track system of 
rails sufficiently far apart as not to interfere with the 
hanging of the different lengths of sausage. 

These sections or tracks are generally about twenty- 
eight inches apart. The lower track, or section nearest 
to the fire, should not be closer than eight feet and the 
house should be built high enough so that there will be 
sections of tracking which can be used for cold smoke, 
which should be from fourteen to eighteen feet above the 
fire. This, of course, necessitates a very high smoke 
house. 

The modern houses are built of brick, about 54 inches 
in width, which will allow, in the clear, over the track, 
42 or 44 inches, the usual length of the smoke stack. In 
depth the houses vary and can be from 10 to 16 feet. 
In height the houses also vary, but for the ordinary 
packing house the height of the smoke house compart- 
ments should be from two to three stories, and should be 
built exclusively of brick, as it has been shown by numer- 
ous exioeriments with sheet iron and iron lined houses 
that these are not a success for smoking all kinds of 
sausage. The draft of the houses is, of course, regulated 
by ventilators at the top. 

In smoking domestic sausage, it is always preferable 
to use hard wood and never to put green or unsmoked 
sausage into a cold smoke house. In other words, the 
house should be warmed b}^ first building a fire in it, 
in case it has not been recently used. In hot weather 
or in the summer time this is not so important, as smoke 
houses then are sufficiently warm at all times. In cool 
weather or during the winter, the smoke house should 
either be kept warm by constant usage or by warming up 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 



353 



before using, in case the house is empty and has be- 
come cold. If this is not strictly adhered to, the Bologna 
or other sausage, which is usually wet before it is hung 
in the house, Avill come out of smoke with a dark ring- 
around the inside next to the casing, which is extremely 
detrimental to its appearance and keeping qualities. 

The smoking and handling after smoking of the dif- 
ferent kinds of domestic sausage are described under 
their respective formulas. 

DEVICES FOR EUISTlSriXG SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE. 

All domestic sausages, except pork, are cooked and 
smoked. This necessitates a considerable amount of 




FIG. 139.— DEVICE FOR RUNNING SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE. 



handling, as the sausage, as fast as stuffed, is hung on 
stacks and each stack must be run separately into the 
smoke house, from tliere on to the trucks and into the 
cooking vats, cold storage, etc. The stack, as shown in 
Fig. 138, is used to hang the sausage on as fast as it 
is stuffed or linked. It is then run to the smoke house, 
where the sausage is smoked; from there to the cooking 
vats, which are set even with the floor, and, with either 



354 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



liand or power hoist, the stack is lifted off the rail and 
lowered into the vats. Wlien cooked it is again hung 
on the rail and run into the chill rooms. When the 
sausage is chilled and ready for shipment it is run to 
the packing room, and the stack, when empty, is returned 
to the sausage department again to be filled. This equip- 
ment is a great labor saving device and worthy the con- 
sideration of all sausage manufacturers doing a large 
volume of business. 

In Figs. 139 and 140 is shown a simple device for 
running sausage into the smoke house, by means of which 



^i PIPE 




FIG. 140.— DETAIL OF SMOKE HOUSE CARRIAGE. 

the smoke house is used to the best advantage, as the 
smoke can be left on the house continually and the dif- 
ferent kinds of sausage run in and out as desired. This 
smoke house carriage is made of angle irons and is run 
on a track which is supported l^y vertical columns. The 
outside tracks can be raised to any height desired to 
match the tracks in the smoke house. The sausage is 
hung on this carriage and run into the smoke house, and 
when it is sufficienth^ smoked the carriage can be drawn 
out on the movable rails, the sausages taken off, others 
put in their place and the operation repeated. This de- 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 355 

vice necessitates a carriage for each set of tracks in the 
smoke house, it is not as easy a method as the one first 
explained, that is, hanging them on stacks, but is better 
adapted to houses of small capacity. 

For detailed plan of double trolley truck, such as is 
used for sausage stacks, ham house racks and any other 
purpose where heavy weights are to be run upon over- 
head rails, see Fig. 136. In hanging a heavy weight on 
a single truck there is always a jerking or unsteady 
motion when being pushed along the rail. The double 
trucks, made as shown in the illustration, run evenly and 
smoothly, one man being able to push a very heavy 
load. 

INSIDE WATEE COLOE FOE DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. 

In order to give sausage an attractive appearance a 
coloring is used in the meat before stuffing. The formu- 
las which follow will indicate its use. The first item 
in a coloring mixture, ' ' W. Maroon, " is a vegetable col- 
oring, manufactured in Germany, and to the best of the 
author's knowledge can be purchased only from Messrs. 
Kuttroff, Pickhardt & Co., 209 Michigan St., Chicago, 
111. While the price for this is vquite liigh, namely, $2.50 
to $3.00 per pound, so small a quantity is used that it 
is of little consecjuence. While there are several differ- 
ent colors offered for sale a consumer will find it cheaper 
to buy this coloring and prepare his own mixture. The 
formula referred to is : 

3 1/3 ounces "W. Maroon," 
2 pounds granulated sugar, 
8 ounces saltpetre, 
2 ounces of boracic acid. 

Mix thoroughly and dissolve in forty-five gallons of 
water. This mixture must be stirred until all particles of 
tlie ingredients are thoroughly dissolved. The solution 



356 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

is known as '' color water." and it is advisable to keep 
it in a cool place. It will be found in Bologna and other 
sausage formulas hereafter given and referred to as 
^' color 'water," which means this formula, and should 
be handled accordingly. 

INSIDE DRY COLOR FOR DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. 

Many sausage makers prefer a dry color for the in- 
side of sausage. When such is the case the author recom- 
mends the following: 

72 pounds borax, 
10 pounds boracic acid, 
18 pounds fine salt, 
1 pound and 4 ounces W. Maroon. 

This combination makes not only an excellent color- 
ing, but makes the preservative and- coloring combined, 
and is used in the same proportions as preservative, 
namely, four to six ounces per 100 pounds of meat. 

OUTSIDE COLOR FOR SAUSAGE CASINGS. 

There are a number of excellent carbons used for 
coloring sausage casings, the purpose for using these 
colors being to give the sausage a heavy, smoked ap- 
pearance, at the same time leaving it dry and wholesome 
appearing. Among the principal carbons used are those 
known to the trade as '' Zanzibar " carbon, '' Zulu " 
carbon and " French " carbon. Any of these may be 
purchased from reliable butchers supply houses, the di- 
rections for using being very explicit. It is advisable 
to use an outside coloring for casings, as this also acts 
as a preservative from mold. These carbons have been 
exhaustively examined chemically and found absolutely 
harmless. 

VARNISH FOR BOLOGNA SAUSAGE. 

This is a very important feature in the manufacture 
of sausage, both as intended to improve its appearance 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 357 

and to insure against shrinkage. As considerable water 
is used, in addition to the natural moisture in meats 
composing the sausage, there is, after it is manufactured, 
considerable shrinkage, and if it is allowed to hang for 
any length of time, the casings become wrinkled on ac- 
count of the evaporation of this internal moisture. The 
varnishing of the sausage creates a cuticle on the out- 
side which prevents this wrinkled appearance, thereby 
improving its looks, and retarding or preventing the 
evaporation of moisture from the sausage. The formula 
is as follows : 

6 pounds white shellac, 

1 pound boracic acid, 

2 pounds aqua ammonia, 
14 pounds of water. 

This mixture should be put into a vessel and heated 
to a point where the shellac is well dissolved. When this 
is accomplished, add four gallons of water. This var- 
nish, in order to be ready for use at any time, must be 
kept lukewarm. It should, therefore, be kept in a jack- 
eted pan, surrounded by either hot water or steam, to 
hold it at the proper temperature. The sausage should 
simply be immersed and immediately hung up to dry. 

This varnish can be used without any detrimental 
effect whatever on all kinds of smoked Bologna sausage 
or smoked cooked pressed ham. It preserves the sau- 
sage, also keeps it from molding, and i^ especially effect- 
ive where it is necessary to pack Bologna in boxes for 
shipment long distances. 

Where the dippilig pan is used, it is only necessary 
to dip the sausage in the above solution a few seconds 
before hanging on racks to dry. The sausage is usually 
ready for shipment in one hour after it is dipped, if 
the preparation is properly made, and where a large 
amount of Bologna is being dipped it is, of course, neces- 



358 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

sary to have a larger dipping pan and a larger quantity 
of varnish. Therefore, the proportions should be in- 
creased according to the quantity desired. 

It is also important that, after the varnish has stood 
from one period of dipping to another, care should be 
taken to skim the grease off the top of the varnish before 
again using it, and the Bologna should always be dipped 
immediately after it is taken from the cooking vats; in 
other words, while hot. 

' POEK SAUSAGE. 

This is a sausage which is generally considered the 
finest domestic sausage made and upon the quality of 
which all manufacturers pride themselves. It is possible 
to use many adulterations in the making of this sausage 
and still have it passably good, but generally speaking, 
tliere is less chance for manipulation of this sort in this 
kind of sausage than in many of the others. The best 
pork sausage is that which is made of clear pork trim- 
mings Avitli little water added, and properly seasoned. 
Various formulas are made by using this as a base and 
adding cheaper articles to reduce the cost. The following 
formulas make a cheap and palatable pork sausage: 

FORMULA A. FORMULA B. 

75 pounds pork trimmings, 90 pounds regular pork tnmmings, 

19 pounds potatoes, 10 pounds tripe, 

6 pounds beef suet, 6 pounds corn flour, 

13 pounds water, 15 pounds water, 

2 pounds, 5 ounces salt, 2 pounds, 3 ounces salt, 
4 ounces sage, 4 ounces sage, 

11 ounces white pepper, 11 ounces white pepper, 

3 ounces sugar, 3 ounces sugar, 

1 pound, 3 ounces color water. 1 pound, 8 ounces color water. 

The above formulas are for sausage meat, which is 
often sold loose or without stuffing, also for sausage 
stuffed in hog casings. Many sausage manufacturers 
grind their pork trimmings through a moderately fine 
plate on an Enterprise chopper and mix the seasoning 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 359 

and water mechanically. Many nse the '' Buffalo Silent 
Gutter." Either way is proper and gives good results. 

The following formula is for an extra choice pork 
sausage: Select moderately lean ham trimmings. To 
100 pounds of meat use one pound eight ounces of cracker 
meal and two pounds of water, three pounds of salt and 
fourteen ounces of Oxford seasoning. 

There are many different kinds of pork sausage sea- 
soning on the market and many that are manufactured 
ready for use. One of the principal seasonings and 
one that is used quite extensively is known as " Oxford 
seasoning." This is especially good for high grade sau- 
sage, and at the same time a very economical one. Pork 
sausage should be stuffed in large sheep casings. When 
possible the sausage meat should be chopped on a steam 
rocker, which gives it a better texture than is secured 
by grinding. 

BOLOGNA SAUSAGE. 

Bologna is one of the most common and generally 
used types of sausage manufactured. It derives its name 
from the town of Bologna in Italy, and is used very 
extensively by the people coming from that country, as 
well as by other foreigners. It is very palatable and in 
nearly every locality in good demand. In the modern 
manufacture of Bologna, ingredients are used which are 
not in themselves palatable, but are wholesome and nu- 
tritious. The seasoning of Bologna * is what makes it 
palatable, and it is at the same time an economical diet. 

The formulas which follow, if they are accurately 
followed and fresh and wholesome material carefully 
prepared is used, will make a sausage which is very 
acceptable to the trade and to the consumer and will sell 
equally as well as Bologna which is made solely from 
fresh pork and beef trimmings. In the formulas given 



360 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



tripe and potatoes are used. These, as will be under- 
stood, are used to cheapen the product, although they 
are both wholesome and nutritious. Both are thoroughly 
cooked before being used and the potatoes should in all 
cases be peeled. Both the tripe and the potatoes are 
then ground through an Enterprise machine with the 
beef or beef trimmings that are to be used in the sausage. 
This process mixes them thoroughly with the meats. The 
ideal formula for Bologna sausage is : 

60 pounds of pork trimmings, 
30 pounds of beef trimmings, 
10 pounds of porls: fat. 

Other formulas are simply a modification of this, 
in which the object desired is to make a good sausage 
at a lower cost. It is not intended to give a long list 
of form-ulas, as the variation of the values of the differ- 
ent products might make them impracticable when it 
was desired to use them. A few formulas, however, will 
be presented, to indicate the different products that can 
be used to make a satisfactory sausage, and at the same 
time cheapen the cost. These formulas will show the 
different kinds of pork and beef trimmings that may 
be used to advantage. The seasoning, color water, pre- 
servative, etc., can be used in connection with any 
formula. 



FORMULA A. 

100 pounds beef cheek meat, 
80 pounds warm bull's beef, 

or beef trimmings, 
20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 

6 pounds corn flour, 
40 pounds water, 

1 pound, 2 ounces black 
pepper, 

1 pound sugar, 

5 pounds color water, 

4 ounces coriander, 

4 ounces saltpetre, 

1 ounce cloves, 

% ounce cinnamon, 

1 ounce allspice. 



FORMULA B. 

180 pounds fresh beef cheek 
meat, 
20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 

8 pounds corn flour, 
30 pounds water, 
1 pound, 2 ounces black 

pepper, 
1 pound sugar, 
4 pounds color water, 
4 ounces coriander, 
4 ounces saltpeter, 
1 ounce cloves, 
14 ounce cinnamon, 
1 ounce allspice. 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 



361 



FORMULA C. 



30 


pounds 


cooked tripe. 


30 


pounds 


dry salt or pickled 




pork trimmings. 


20 pounds 


pork head meat, 


20 pounds 


pork hearts, 


15 


pounds 


fat pork trimmings 


70 


pounds 
meat. 


fresh beef cheek 


10 


pounds 


potatoes boiled. 


10 


pounds 


corn flour. 


40 


pounds 


water. 


1 


pound 1 


black pepper. 


2 


pounds 


salt. 


4 


pounds 


color water. 


2 


ounces 


saltpetre. 


3 


ounces 


coriander. 


1 


ounce allspice, 


1 


ounce cloves, 



FORMULA D. 

15 pounds potatoes boiled, 
65 pounds fresh pork hearts, 
20 pounds pickled pork trim- 
mings, 
80 pounds beef cheek meat, 
20 pounds fat fresh pork 
trimmings, 
9 pounds corn flour, 
20 pounds water, 
4 pounds color water, 
4 pounds, 4 ounces salt, 

1 pound, 4 ounces black pep- 

per, 
8 ounces sugar, 

2 ounces saltpetre, 

1 ounce allspice, 

2 ounces mace, 
iy2 ounces cloves. 



14 ounce cinnamon. 



FORMULA E. 



65 pounds fresh pork hearts, 
35 pounds fresh beef cheek meat, 
80 pounds fresh pork cheek meat, 
20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 

8 pounds corn flour, 
30 pounds water, 

1 pound, 2 ounces black pepper, 

1 pound sugar, 

5 pounds color water, 

4 ounces coriander, 

4 ounces saltpetre, 

1 ounce cloves, 

% ounce cinriamon. 



The above formulas can be used for long Bologna, 
round Bologna, large Bologna and bag Bologna, or for 
Bologna stuffed in beef middles. 

The modern way of manufacturing Bojogna is to grind 
the meats, with the exception of fresh pork trimmings 
and possibly fresh lean pork cheek meat, through an En- 
terprise grinder or hasher, being usually a 7/64th-inch 
plate. The meat is then put into the bowl of the " Buf- 
falo Silent Cutter," where the seasoning, color, and most 
of the water is added, when the pork trimmings, or pork 
cheek meat, as the case may be, is added and chopped 
until the required fineness and consistency is obtained. 



362 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

It is always a good plan to mix the corn flour, salt 
and other seasoning before using. Also work in the 
water from the start by degrees, and the color water im- 
mediately after the seasoning. 

After the Bologna is chopped, it is a good plan to 
allow the meat to stand in a cooler where the tempera- 
ture is from 40° to 42° F. for twenty-four hours. The 
meat should be spread on tables or benches or left in 
movable trucks made for that purpose. 

To insure the prevention of mold to a great extent 
in Bologna and other sausage stuffed in casing, it is 
a good plan to soak the casing in a solution of lukewarm 
water the required length of time, say thirty minutes, 
with a proportion of eight ounces of powdered borax 
and one ounce boracic acid to fifty gallons of water. The 
sausage casings in all cases should be prepared at least 
twenty-four hours before stuffing, and in all cases the 
casing should be thoroughly cured with salt before using. 

After the Bologna is stuffed, it is customary, in some 
cases, to allow the sausage to stand in the casings a 
few hours before being smoked. In fact, in some cases, 
it is absolutely necessary to do this, especially where 
it is impossible to take care of the sausage in the smoke 
houses as fast as it is smoked. It is, therefore, best in 
this case to remove the sausage from the stuffing room 
immediately after it is stuffed to a cool place or a cooler 
where the temperature is between 42° and 4S° F. A 
lower temperature, or a ver}^ cool temperature after the 
sausage is stuffed (if it is allowed to remain in this tem- 
perature very long), will cause a dark ring to form inside 
of the casing, which is very detrimental to the appear- 
ance and sale of the product. 

Smoking Bologna Sausage — A smoke house for this 
purpose must be in proper condition to receive the 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 363 

sausage, which means that the house should be warm. 
A moderate fire sliould first be started, sufficient to dry 
the casing, after which hard wood sawdust should be 
used, so as to give the casings the proper color. The 
sausage should be hung far enough awaj^ from the fire 
to avoid blistering. In any case the fire sliould not be 
closer than from 6 to 8 feet. For time required for 
smoking long Bologna, see " Cooking and Smoking " 
schedules at the end of this chapter. 

After Bologna is smoked, it is immediately cooked, 
the time and temperature required in cooking being given 
in schedules referred to. After the Bologna is cooked, 
it should be varnished. ( See instructions in formula for 
Bologna varnish.) Bologna should hang several hours 
after it has been varnished before being packed into 
boxes for shipment (if packed warm it soon molds), and 
it is always a good plan to use straw paper or veneer be- 
tween each layer of sausage. 

Large Bologna — Formulas A and B are the most de- 
sirable to use in making what is known as large Bologna. 
Beef bungs are used for casings. Process of manufact- 
uring and handling is the sam^e as in long Bologna, ex- 
cept as to smoking and cooking. (See Cooking and 
Smoking schedules.) 

Round Bologna — Formulas A, B, C, D and E can be 
used for round Bologna. Beef rounds are used as casings. 
Making and handling is same as for long Bologna, ex- 
cept in smoking and cooking. (See schedules.) 

Bag Bologna — Formulas A and B can be used for this 
Bologna. However, the quantity of water must be re- 
duced at least 50 per cent. Strong cloth bags are used 
as casings. Process of manufacturing and handling is 
the same as for long Bologna, except as to cooking and 
smoking. (See schedules.) 



364 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Weasand Bologna, or Bologna Stuff ed in Beef Weas- 
ands — Formulas A, B, C, D and E can be used for this 
Bologna. Beef weasands are used as casings. Process 
of manufacture and handling are the same as for long- 
Bologna, except the weasands are skewered with wooden 
skewers instead of being tied. For cooking and smoking 
see schedules. 

KNOBLAUCH SAUSAGE, 
FORMULA. 

30 pounds pork knuckle meat, 5 pounds salt, 

65 pounds very lean pork trim- 1 pound white pepper, 

mings, 3 ounces mace, 

50 pounds back fat trimmings 2i/^ ounces saltpetre, 

or moderately fat trimimngs, 12 ounces sugar, 

22 pounds pork neck fat, 2 ounces grated onions, 

^V2 pounds corn flour, 3 ounces garlic, 

55 pounds water, 8 ounces color water. 

Stutf in beef rounds and tie with twine every tive 
inches. Knuckle meat may be ground through a mod- 
erately fine plate. Balance of pork should be chopped 
in a '' Buffalo Silent Cutter." Corn flour and season- 
ing should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put 
into the Buffalo chopper and the machine has made two 
or three revolutions. JVlanufacture and handle the same 
as Bologna, except do not cook in color water. The 
casings should not be colored. Cooking and smoking as 
23er schedule given. 

LEON A (long) sausage. 

FORMULA. 

30 pounds pork knuckle meat, 

65 pounds lean pork trimmings, 

50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings, 

22 pounds pork neck fat, 

8% pounds corn flour, 
55 pounds water, 

5 pounds salt, 

1 pound white pepper, 
8 pounds color water, 
3 ounces mace, 

IVz ounces saltpetre, 
12 ounces sugar, 

2 ounces grated onions, 
% ounce garlic. 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 365 

Uniform beef middles are used as casings. Knuckle 
meat may be ground through a moderately fine plate. 
Balance of pork should be chopped in the " Buffalo Si- 
lent Cutter." Corn flour and seasoning should be added 
to the knuckle meat after it is put into the Buffalo chop- 
per and the machine has made two or three revolutions. 
This product should be manufactured and handled in 
the same way as Bologna, except that it should not be 
cooked in color water. The casing should not be col- 
ored. Smoking and cooking as per schedule. 

LEONA (large) SAUSAGE. 

The same formula as that of Leona long applies. 
Beef bungs are used as casings and this sausage is also 
wrapped with twine. Manufacture and handle same as 
Leona long, with the exception of smoking and cooking, 
which is done as indicated in the tables. 

POLISH SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

100 pounds beef cheek meat, 
50 pounds dry ^alt or pickled pork trimmings, 
50 pounds pork trimmings, 

9 pounds corn flour, 
30 pounds water, 

1 pound wliite pepper, 

1 pound salt, 

3 pounds color water, 

6 ounces saltpetre, 

6 ounces coriander, 

3 ounces garlic. ^ 

Beef rounds are used for casings. Grind the beef 
cheek meat through a 7/64th plate, add corn flour and 
seasoning, work in as much water as possible and then 
add the pork trimmings. This is a very coarse chopped 
sausage and the pork trimmings should be chopped about 
as fine as small dice. Beef is the binder of this sausage, 
and must be handled according to instructions. The 



366 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

meat, after it is chopped, can be handled the same as 
Bologna and Frankfurt meat by putting in a cooler for 
a few hours before stuffing. After the sausage is stuffed, 
it can also be handled as Bologna and Frankfurts, if de- 
sired, before smoking. 

This sausage should be smoked carefully and strictly 
in accordance with the smoking schedule, as it is not 
cooked, this being done practically in the smoke house, 
during the process of smoking. After it is smoked it 
has a very wrinkled appearance, which is essential for 
this article. In fact, it is not Polish sausage unless 
it has this appearance. It is never advisable to varnish 
this sausage, or to place it in a cooler after it is smoked. 
A great many manufacturers color the casing before 
stuffing, which can be done a few moments before they 
are used, by soaking in a solution of carbon, which is 
used in the cooking vat to color Bologna and Frankfurts ; 
however, if the sausage is properly smoked it is unnec- 
essary to color the casings. 

FEAISrivFUETS. 

There are as many different formulas for Frankfurts 
as for Bologna. While a variety of trimmings and offal 
can be used in the manufacture of Frankfurts, it is not 
safe to use too cheap an article, as this sausage is stuffed 
in sheep casings and the ingredients must necessarily be 
of better quality in order to get the desired results in 
appearance and taste. Practically the same process of 
manufacture will appl}" to Frankfurts as to Bologna, viz., 
grind the beef and other material, except the pork, which 
is chopped in the " Buffalo Silent Cutter." It is unnec- 
essary to use a mixer for tliis article if properly handled 
and mixed in the cutter. Always add the corn flour and 
seasoning and as much water as possible to the mass 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 367 

after it is put in the cutter before adding the pork trim- 
mings. 

FORMULA A. 

57 pounds regular pork trimmings, 

65 pounds beef cheek meat, 

15 pounds cooked tripe, 

25 pounds pork kidneys, 

20 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings, 

9 pounds corn flour, 
45 pounds water, 

1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper, 

3 pounds salt, 

2 pounds color water. 

4 ounces saltpetre, 

3 ounces allspice, 
3 ounces mace, 

3 ounces coriander, 
iy2 ounces cloves. 

Stuff in large sheep casings. It is well to handle the 
meat for Frankfurts by allowing it to stand in a cooler 
for a moderate length of time, the same as Bologna. Also 
handle the stuffed product practically the same as Bo- 
logna, except less color is used, as is explained in the 
directions given for using the carbon color which it may 
be desired to use for this purpose. Care should also be 
taken in preparing the smoke houses, as for Bologna. 
The cooking and smoking should be done as indicated in 
schedules given. ^ 

FORMULA B. 

90 pounds lean pork cheek meat, 

60 pounds regular pork trimmings, 

9 pounds corn flour, 

60 pounds water, 

5 pounds salt, * 

2 pounds, 7 ounces color water, 
12 ounces sugar, 

3 ounces saltpetre, 

1 pound -black pepper, 

2 ounces mace. 

In making up this formula the pork cheek meat can 
be ground through a coarse plate, but care must be taken 
to work in all the water with the pork cheek meat after 
the corn flour and spices have been added in the ' '. Buffalo 



368 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Silent Cutter " before adding the pork trimmings. To 
one who is not familiar with working-in a large quan- 
tity of water in this manner, the mass would seem very 
thin. In fact it will be, but after adding the pork trim- 
mings proper and satisfactory results will be obtained. 
Use large uniform sheep casings and handle the same as 
formula A, but use discretion about cooking them in 
color water. A great many manufacturers prefer to use 
no color water with this grade of Frankfurts, as the pork 
and proper smoking will give sufficient color without 
artificial means. The smoking and cooking is done as in- 
dicated in appended schedules. 

Vienna Frankfurts — The following is the formula for 
making this type of Frankfurts : 

20 pounds pork knuckle meat, 

60 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings, 

70 pounds lean shoulder trimmings, 

9 pounds corn flour, 
40 pounds water, 

1 pound white pepper, 
5 pounds salt, 

1% pounds color water, 
12 ounces sugar, 

2 ounces mace, 

3 ounces saltpetre. 

The knuckle meat can be ground through a coarse 
plate if desired. Work the water in with the knuckle 
meat and shoulder trimmings before the back fat or fat 
trimmings are used. Stuff in large sheep casings and 
handle in every respect the same as formula B. For 
smoking and cooking see schedules. 

BLOOD SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

205 pounds shoulder fat, 
54 pounds pig skins, 
47 pounds Ijeef blood, 
5 pounds onions, 

7 pounds salt, 

1 pound white pepper, 

3 pounds corn flour, 

8 ounces marjoram, 

4 ounces cloves. 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 369 

Use pickled shoulder fat and skins, cook for one hour 
at a temperature of 210° F. and run through fat cutting 
machine or cut into size of small dice. Pass the beef 
blood through a fine sieve in order to separate foreign 
matter. Cook pig skins for about two hours at a tem- 
perature of 210° F. and grind through a 7/64th plate. 
Mix the shoulder fat, skins, blood and seasoning thor- 
oughly together and stuff in cap end bungs. Smoking 
and cooking as indicated in schedules. 

TONGUE SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

50 pounds hog or sheep tongue, 
130 pounds shoulder fat, 
34 pounds hog skins, 
30 pounds blood, 
8 pounds salt, 

1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper, 

2 pounds onions, - 
10 ounces marjoram, 

4 ounces cloves. 

Use pickled shoulder fat, skin and cook for one hour 
at a temperature of 210° F., run through a fat cutting 
machine or cut into size- of small dice. Use beef blood, 
passed through a fine sieve in order to separate any 
foreign material. Cook hog skins for about two hours 
at a temperature of 210° F. and grind through a 7/64th- 
inch plate. Pickled sheep tongues are preferable to 
pickled hog tongues, as they are smaller and make a 
better appearing sausage when cut. The tongue should 
be cooked one and three-quarter hours at a temperature 
of 210° F. 

Before mixing the above ingredients, rinse the fat 
off the tongues with hot water in order to remove 
as much grease as possible. Mix the ingredients thor- 
oughly with the seasoning by hand. Wlien stuffing put 
about four pieces of tongue to each bung. However, 



370 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

this varies according to the size of the bungs used. Cap 
end bungs should be used in all cases. Smoking and cook- 
ing to be done as indicated in appended schedules. 

LIVER SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

20 pounds cooked lean pork trimmings, 
20 pounds cooked porl-i cheek meat, 
20 pounds coolved pork skins, 
10 pounds cool\;ed hog livers, 
50 pounds cooked tripe, 

6 pounds cooked shoulder fat, 

3 pounds salt, 

3 pounds onions, 

9 ounces white pepper, 

2 ounces marjoram, 

2 ounces cloves, 

1% ounces allspice. 

Above is all ground through a 7/64th inch plate except 
the shoulder fat, which is run through a fat cutting ma- 
cliine or cut into size of small dice. It is necessary to 
mix this sausage in a sausage mixer. The seasoning 
should be put into the mixer when starting to mix, but 
the shoulder fat should not be put in until about half 
through. Stuff immediately into hog bungs, or beef mid- 
dles, as desired. Cook immediately as per cooking table 
and then place in cooler, at a temperature of 36° to 40° F. 
until thoroughly chilled, when it is ready for shipping. 

BONELESS PIGS FEET. 
FORMULA. 

25 pounds fresh pigs feet. 

30 pounds fresh pigs skins, 

15 pounds fresh pigs snouts, 

15 pounds fresh pigs ears, 

20 pounds fresh pork trimmings, 

15 pounds fresh beef trimmings, 

10 pounds white pepper, 

50 pounds water in which meat has been cooked, 

4 pounds, 1 ounce salt, 

4 ounces cloves. 

Use one gallon (45-grain) vinegar to 500 pounds of 
the above mass. Cook all of the meats in one vat, thor- 
oughly, in pudding nets, and chop up same as is done 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 371 

with head cheese and mix seasoning, water and vinegar 
with the meat in a large tub or tight-bottom truck. 

It is necessary to use tin molds for this sausage and 
they are generally of one size, shaped as a ten-pound 
wooden bucket or other sized packages which may be 
intended to be used for shipping purposes. Fill these 
molds with the mixed mass and put on top of each a 
wooden block the size of the mold and about 3 inches 
thick. Then remove to a cooler and press tightly by 
placing on top a board with a weight. In order to obtain 
the best results, the molds or cans should be cooled 
quickly, therefore a temperature of about 36° F. is de- 
sirable. To remove the contents from the cans or molds, 
submerge in hot water for a few seconds, when the meat 
will loosen from the sides of the molds and can be turned 
out readily. 

After the product has been removed from the molds 
allow it to stand for a short while in the cooler before 
placing in shipping packages. 

This sausage can be made without using wooden tops 
on the cans or molds and without pressing it. If the 
pig skins, after they are cooked, are ground through a 
7/64th-inch plate and then mixed with the mass, more of 
a jelly formation will be produced and they will not 
require pressing. 

HEAD CHEESE. ^ 

FORMULA. 

44 pounds cooked pig skins, 

55 pounds cooked pig snouts, 

33 pounds coo"ked pig ears, 

55 pounds cooked beef hearts, 

51 pounds cooked neclv fat, 

20 pounds water in which the meat has been cooked, 

1 pound white pepper, 
10 pounds onions, 

4 ounces allspice, 

2 ounces cloves, 

3 ounces marjoram, 

3 ounces carroway seeds. 



372 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The cooked meats are chopped by hand with a knife 
until reduced to the proper size, except the skins, which 
are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate after being 
cooked. The mass usually is mixed by hand and stuffed 
into cured hog paunches or beef bungs and cooked as 
per cooking schedule appended hereto. After the 
sausage is cooked, it is taken to a cooler and usually 
pressed by laying the paunches or bungs side by side with 
a board between each layer and a moderate weight on top 
of the last board. However, if properly made this is 
unnecessary as the gelatine from the skins and the water 
in which the meat has been cooked will bind the other 
ingredients together sufficiently without much, if any, 
pressing. 

MINCED HAM. 
FORML^LA. 

50 pounds beef trimmings, 

20 pounds pork cheek meat, 

80 pounds regular pork trimmings, 

7 pounds corn flour, 
30 pounds water, 

5 pounds salt, 

8 ounces sugar, 

31/^ ounces white pepper, 

41/^ ounces dry color preservative, 

31/2 ounces saltpetre. 

Use small calf bladders as casings. Many manufact- 
urers, especially those who are in a position to make 
summer sausage, chop this meat on a steam rocker and 
grind the beef through a 7/64th-inch plate, rocking this 
with the seasoning until very fine before adding the pork 
trimmings. However, this ham can be made by grinding 
the beef as mentioned and using a " Buffalo Silent Cut- 
ter. ' ' In fact, better results have been obtained by using 
the latter method than by the former, for if the steam 
rocker is used, the water would have to be mixed in with 
a mixer after the mass has been chopped. This meat 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 373 

can be handled the same as Bologna and Frankfurts as 
to cooler process after the bladders have been stuffed. 
They may be left in the cooler for several hours before 
smoking, if desired. 

In tying the bladders, it is best to use a wooden 
skewer instead of twine and it is also preferable to use 
small calf bladders in place of large ones, as the time 
required for smoking and cooling is so long that if large 
bladders are used the weight of them would break the 
bladders where they are skewered or tied and would 
result in shrinkage or loss. Follow the smoking and 
cooking schedules closely. Cook in color water same as 
Bologna. 

COOKED PKESSED HAM, OR HAM SAUSAGE. 

This ham is made from preservative or " Curene " 
pork trimmings put down under the same formula as 
given under the head of preservatives for pork and beef 
trimmings. The best and leanest trimmings obtainable 
are cured for this purpose. Shoulder blade trimmings 
or lean shoulder trimmings are more desirable than any 
ether kind. 

After the trimmings have been cured and are ready 
for use, which is after they show a bright cured color 
throughout and are without any dark spots in the cen- 
ter of the meat, the trimmings are weighed up in 100 
pound batches, and about 10 per cent of Curene lean 
beef trimmings, ground through a 7/64th inch plate, is 
mixed thoroughly with them by hand. 

Some manufacturers use a " Zimmerman " mixer 
and mix up from 300 to 400 pounds at a time. However, 
this is unnecessary and good results can be obtained in 
mixing by iiand. Immediately after the trimmings are 
mixed the mass should be stuffed into large beef bung 



374 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ends, usually from 14 to 16 inches long. To obtain tlie 
best results a steam stuffer arranged with a large sized 
tiller is necessary. However, a hand stuffer arranged 
with a large sized filler, about 3 inches at the small end, 
or opening, can be used. Care should be taken to stuff 
the bungs as tightly as possible. They should be skew- 
ered instead of tied at the ends and should be wrapped 
with heavy twine, each piece having from four to six 
wrappings of the twine, which should terminate with a 
hanger for the ham. The pieces are very heavy and 
will break during the processes of smoking and cooking 
unless they are properly wrapped or tied. 

This ham is smoked five hours at a temperature of 
from 130° to 140° F. and the house should be moderately 
warm before the ham is hung in the smoke. A small 
tire should be started to dr}^ off the casings, after which 
the house should be smoked the same as for Bologna. 
Cook at least two hours and thirty minutes at a tempera- 
ture of 180° F. in same color water as for Bologna. 

This ham may be varnished but it is not necessary, 
and it is not recommended. After it has been cooked it 
is taken immediately to a cooler, where the temperature 
is from 38° to 40° F,, and put under a press made for the 
purpose. If no press is obtainable place the ham in 
layers, putting a board between each layer with a weight 
on the top board. Place the hams in a pile or under the 
press so that they can be skewered with a long, thin 
skewer about one-half the thickness or size of a common 
liam tryer in order to permit the water which is in the 
hams from cooking to escape. After they have been 
under pressure for twelve hours, take them out and hang 
them up so that boiling hot water can be thrown on and 
over them to wash off the grease. After they have been 
tiioroughly washed in this manner remove to a dry cooler 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 375 

and allow them to remain in a cool temperature until 
shipped. 

TEST ON SKINNED SHOULDERS (HOCK AND FAT ON) FOR COOKED 
PRESSED HAM. 
Debits : 

9,27G pounds shoulders at 5%c per pound ^$533.37 

Labor at 20c per hour = 19.82 

Total $553.19 

Credits: 

5,663 pounds sausage meat at 7 l/5c per pound. .... .=$407.73 

2,689 pounds fat at 4%c . .= 127.72 

630 pounds bones at %c .= 3.15 

278 pounds trimmings at 5".4c = 14.95 

Total $553.55 

TEST ON SKINNED SHOULDEKS (HOCK OFF) FOR COOKED PRESSED HAM. 

Debits: 

8,000 pounds shoulders at ^Hc per pound =$500.00 

Labor at 35c per hour = 17.57 

Total $517.57 

Credits: 

5,021 pounds sausage meat at 7 9/lOc per pound. .. .=$399.16 

2,105 pounds fat at 4%c = 99.99 

516 pounds bones at i/^c ziz 2.58 

302 pounds trimmings at 5^/4c = 15.24 

Total $516.97 

RECAPITULATION. 

Cost of lean meat when bought hock on, per pound. . . .$0.0720/ 
Cost of lean meat when bought hock off, per pound .... $0.0794 

Gain by purchasing hocks on, per pound $0.0074 

NEW JEESEY HAM, 

New Jersey ham is made according' to the following 
formula : 

60 pounds lean ham trimmings, 
80 pounds lean back trimmings, 
10 pounds lean beef chucks or shank meat, 

4 pounds salt, 

3% pounds cracker meal, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative, 
12 ounces sugar, 

% ounce red pepper. 

Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-incli 
plate and rocked about five minutes, when the pork trim- 



376 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

miiigs are added with the seasoning. The seasoning 
should all be mixed thoroughly and added to the meat. 
The whole is then chopped about as coarse as summer 
sausage, or about twenty to twentj^-five minutes. It is 
taken to a cooler after being rocked and spread on a 
table, about 6 or 8 inches thick, where it is allowed to 
remain about three days at a temperature of from 38° 
to 40° F. 

It is then stuffed by hand stuff ers into bags, which 
will weigh after being stuffed and dried about five pounds. 
These bags are made of heavy drilled cloth and should 
be stuffed as tightly as possible. They should be kept 
very clean during the process of stuffing, as any sausage 
meat which ma}^ stick to the cloth will leave a bad ap- 
pearance after the sausage has been smoked. 

After the ham has been stuffed, it should be taken to 
the dry room, where the temperature can be kept at all 
times between 46° and 55° F., 50° being preferable. The 
room must be airy and dry and it will take at least ten 
days under favorable circumstances to get the ham in 
proper condition to smoke. It should be smoked about 
four hours in as cold a smoke as possible, 70° to 75° F. 
being as hot as it is safe to smoke it, 60° F, being nearer 
the proper temperature. After it has been smoked, it 
should be again hung in a cool temperature for three 
days, when it will be ready for shipment. 

This sausage is manufactured very extensively in 
New Jersey and the east. It is also manufactured in 
Chicago to a great extent and shipped east, as there is a 
greater demand for it there than in Chicago and the 
west, but it is becoming a popular sausage everywhere. 

BERLIN HAM. 

Berlin ham is made by mixing seventy pounds regular 
'' Curene " pork trimmings and thirt}^ pounds '' Cur- 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 377 

ene " pork cheek meat or bone meat. Small beef bung 
ends are used as casings. Handle in every respect the 
same as cooked pressed ham, or ham sausage. For cook- 
ing and smoking see appended schedules. 

BONELESS HAM. 

This is made from pork shoulder butts, cured in sweet 
pickle and stuffed in small No. 2 beef bungs. Smoke 
forty-eight hours at a temperature of 120° F. The bungs 
may be slightly colored, the same as Polish sausage 
casings, before stuffing, if desired. Not cooked. 

COTTAGE HAM. 

This is made from boneless ham butts or shoulder 
butts, cured the same as boneless ham butts. It is not 
stuffed but strung from the large end of the butt and 
smoked thirty-two hours at a temperature of 120° F. 
and not cooked. 

STUFFED HOGS HEADS. 

Select a well shaped head, cut off about three to four 
pounds behind the ears and remove the bones. Care 
should be taken in entering alcove the eyes, where the 
skin is thinnest and lies directly on the bone. Do not 
remove the snout bones, but saw off the hindmost jaw 
bone right behind the mouth. Remove the cheek meat on 
either side until with the skin it is abqut % inch thick. 
Cut off about 3 inches square from the lower cheek at 
the back to make the head more shapely. Sew from the 
snout up to the back "bone, where the head is to be filled 
and cut around cover from the skin to fit the back open- 
ing. Prepare the stuffing as follows : 

Good firm young pork, moderately fat, is coarsely 
chopped with the required quantity of salt and allowed 
to stand twentj^-four hours. Use about ten pounds. 



378 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

chopped fine, spiced with five and one-quarter ounces of 
salt, one-half ounce of ground white pepper, seventy- 
seven grains of finely ground mace, mixed with one 
pound of boiled tongue meat cut into shape of dice, one- 
half the size of a walnut. Mix all thoroughly and fill 
head with the mass. Sew the cover on and smoke for 
two hours until it turns to a yellow brown color. After 
it is smoked, tie the head up in a cloth, wrapping a 
string around it very evenly from front to rear. Cook 
in boiling water from three to three and one-half hours, 
and then allow to cool. The head must be a chestnut 
brown when thoroughly smoked, and cooked. 

SCRAPPLE. 

For making scrapple use two pig heads, two pig 
tongues, and two pig livers. These should be cooked in 
an iron-jacketed kettle that will hold about forty-five 
gallons. After being thoroughly cooked, the mass is 
taken from the kettle and is cut up the same as for head 
cheese. After the heads, tongues and livers are taken 
out of the water, skim the grease off and add forty 
pounds of corn meal and five pounds of buckwheat in this 
same water, putting in a little at a time, and handle the 
same as in making mush. Must cook slowly for five 
hours. Seasoning should be added before buckwheat 
and corn meal are put in, consisting of: 

2 ounces white pepper, 
1 ounce red pepper, 
8 ounces sage, 
4 pounds salt. 

After the scrapple has been cooked about four hours 
and forty-five minutes, add the heads, tongues and livers, 
stir thoroughly about fifteen minutes, then shut off steam 
and put into a pan provided for the purpose. After it 
is about two-thirds cooled put on about one ounce to each 
pan of the grease which was skimmed off the kettle after 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 379 

cooking the meat. This is to give it a wholesome ap- 
pearance on the top. 

BOLOGN'A SAUSAGE IN OIL. 

This is a sausage that is manufactured quite exten- 
sively by large packers, who find the principal markets 
for same in the south. In fact, it is not used anywhere 
but in warm climates and it is usually put up in twenty- 
pound and fifty-pound tin packages. 

Much experimenting has been done to ascertain the 
best size for packages to put up this sausage in oil, 
and there has been considerable loss experienced by the 
different manufacturers on account of fermentation and 
consequent spoiling of the product. A vast amount has 
also been expended in fitting up processing apparatus. 

Secrecy has been maintained in regard to the nature 
of the formula used in the preparation of this sausage. 
Plowever, experience has proved that the more processing 
and secrecy obtained in the manufacture of this article, 
the greater the percentage of loss. The following form- 
ula is generally considered to be the best method for 
making this sausage : ■ 

20 pounds fresh head pork meat, 

50 pounds fresh pork hearts, 

30 pounds fresh regular pork trimmings, 

15 pounds fat pork trimmings, 

80 pounds fresh beef cheek meat, 

1 pound, 8 ounces corn flour, 

3 pounds, 8 ounces salt, 
% ounce cloves, 
Yz ounce coriander, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

Stuff in different sized beef rounds. The beef cheek 
meat, pork hearts,^ and pork cheek meat are ground 
through a 7/64th-inch plate, and afterward chopped with 
a ' ' Buffalo Silent Cutter. ' ' the seasoning being added at 
the same time. 

Use no water in this sausage under any circumstances. 
After the beef and beef hearts, also the pork cheek meat. 



380 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

have been chopped as fine as desired, add the pork trim- 
mings and chop the same as any other Bologna, 

It is desirable to stuff this sausage immediately after 
it is chopped, and if a steam stuffer is used care should 
be taken that no water from the evaporation of the steam 
is allowed to get into the sausage. The bench where 
the sausage is stuffed should be absolutely free from 
Abater or moisture. This is the principal factor in the 
successful manufacture of this product. It is the moist- 
ure that causes the trouble so frequently experienced. 

After the sausage is stuffed, it is smoked about three 
hours at a temperature of 150° to 160° F., or until it is 
dry clear through. This sausage is not cooked. Keep it 
away from all water and moisture. 

After the sausage is smoked allow it to cool in a dry 
airy room, but do not put it in a cooler. When it is 
thoroughly cool, pack into twenty-pound and fifty-pound 
packages, as desired, as follows : In twenty-pound cans, 
place sixteen pounds Bologna and four pounds oil. In 
fifty-pound cans, place thirty-six pounds Bologna and 
fourteen pounds oil. 

In order to p>ack the cans properly, it is necessary to 
stuff different sized beef rounds, as mentioned above, so 
that they will fit in nicely without breaking the casings, 
and without filling the cans too full. 

After the cans have been filled with the required 
amount of Bologna, crimp on the summer top, which has 
a 2-inch hole and a cap to fit. Fill the cans with deodor- 
ized cotton seed oil, which must be cold, as full as pos- 
sible. Allow the cans to stand for thirty minutes, then 
refill so that the oil runs over the top through the hole, 
put on the cap immediately and solder right through 
the oil which will accumulate around the cap and on the 
top of the can. This will not hinder the process of 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 381 

soldering and it prevents the possibility of any air get- 
ting into the cans. 

After the caps have been secured, solder around the 
crimps of the summer top. This can be done before the 
oil is put in if desired. Extreme care must be used in 
soldering the cans so that no air whatever gets in, or 
oil leaks out, as the sausage will spoil if this occurs. 

The cans should also be fitted with the regular covers 
so as to protect the summer top. Pack in crates, the 
twenty-pound size, two to four to a crate ; the fifty-pound 
size, one to two to a crate. 

The crates should be large enough so as to admit of 
packing sawdust beneath the bottom, around the sides 
and on the tops. A crate large enough to permit i/4-incli 
space around the cans is the size generally used and 
there should be a partition in the crates where more than 
one can is packed in a crate. 

In freighting this class of merchandise in the south, 
in fact wherever it is shipped, it receives more or less 
rough handling and a great many freight handlers use 
box hooks, which they stick into the sides of the crates, 
and if there is not sufficient protection from the amount 
of sawdust put in, the cans are punctured, the oil leaks 
out and the sausage spoils. Sausage handled in the above 
manner has been known to keep two years in tempera- 
tures ranging from 40° to 100° F. ^ 

PORK SAUSAGE IIST OIL. 

Use the same formula as for regular pork sausage 
except that the trimmings must be moderately lean, and 
the sausage absolutely free from water. Use also the 
same spices. Stuff immediately after the sausage is 
chopped, using the same care as to moisture as for Bo- 
logna in oil, and smoke over a very cold smoke until the 
sausage seems dry all the way through. Allow' it to cool, 



382 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



handling and packing in evei^y other respect the same as 
Bologna in oil. 

FRANKFUETS IN OIL. 

Use any cheap formula for this article except pickled 
pork trimmings, or meat, tripe or potatoes. Use six 
ounces of dry preservative in addition to the regular 
seasoning, but omit the saltpetre. Do not use any water 
in the sausage. Use the same care in stuffing as in the 
other oil sausages. Smoke but do not cook; handling 
and packing in other respects the same as Bologna in 
oil. 

SMOKING SCHEDULE FOE SAUSAGE, 

As pre^dously stated in this article, the smoking of 
sausage is a very important factor, and in the different 
formulas heretofore given in the instructions for han- 
dling, reference has been made to the *' Smoking Sched- 
ule." This schedule has been carefully compiled and the 
time and temperatures given should be closely followed 
in order to get the best results : 



Kind of sausage 



Long- Eologna 

Large " 

Round " 

Bag " 

Bologna in weasands 

Knoblauch 

Leona Bologna long 
large 
Regular Frankfurts. 
Vienna " 

High grade " 

Blood 

Tongue 

Liver 

Polish 

Minced ham 

Berlin 

Cooked pressed ham 

Cottage ham 

Boneless ham 



Time 
hours 


Temperature 

degrees 
Fahrenheit 


3 


145 to 1.50 


3 


145 to 1.50 


3 


135 to 140 


1 


140 to 145 


4 


185 


IH 


130 


3 


145 


3 


145 


2K to 3 


130 to 135 


3 


140 to 145 


3 to3X 


1.50 to 160 


13 


65 to 70 


13 


65 to 70 


1 to 1 H 


110 to 120 


3 to 3M 


150 to 160 


3 to 33^ 


135 


5 


130 to 140 


5 


130 to 140 


33 


130 


48 


80 



DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 



383 



COOKING SCHEDULE FOR SAUSAGE. 

A very important factor entering into the successful 
manufacture of sausage is that it should be cooked prop- 
erly. The following schedule gives the time and tem- 
perature of cooking different kinds of sausage, forming 
the ^' Cooking Schedule " referred tc in many of the 
foregoing formulas : 



Kind of sausage 



Long Bologna 

Large " 

Round " 

Bag " 

Bologna in weasands 

Knoblauch 

Leona Bologna long 
" " large 

Regular Frankfurts. 
Vienna " 

High grade " 

Blood 

Tongue 

Liver 

Minced ham 

Berlin " 

Head cheese 

Cooked pressed ham 



Time 


Time 


hours 


minutes 




30 


2 






30 


2 






45 




20 




40 


o 






7 




7 




7 


2 




2 






30 


4 




o 






45 


2 


30 



Temperature 

degrees 
Fahrenheit 



160 
160 
155 
160 
155 
160 
155 
160 
160 
160 
160 
200 
200 
160 
150 
170 
180 
180 



SHEINKAGES OF DOMESTIC SAUSAGE DURING PROCESS OF 
MANUFACTURE. 

As is known to all sausage makers it is in very rare 
cases that 100 pounds of meat makes 100 pounds of fin- 
ished sausage; there is alwaj^s a shrinkage or loss, and 
before the cost of the finished sausage can be determined 
one must know the slirinkage from original weights of 
raw materials. 

The following tabulated statement is compiled from 
experience with very large amounts of the different kinds 
of sausage, extended over a year and a half of actual 
manufacture. The mean average of shrinkages given is 



38-i THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

accurate information and may safely be used as a guide. 
The author has not given the cost of the foregoing form- 
ulas, as there is such a variation in prices of ingredients 
induced by the fluctuations of the market prices that any 
figures that were given would be misleading in the fu- 
ture, hence to find out the cost of these different form- 
ulas, figure the given weights at market value, shrink- 
ing them according to the table below, adding cost for 
labor and supplies, and a very close approximate cost 
of the manufactured article will be obtained : 

Kind of Sausage. Per cent of shrinkage. 

Long Bologna 8% to 11 

Large Bologna 7 i/i " 10 

Round Bologna 8% " 11 

Bag Bologna 6 " 9 

Bologna in weasands 6 " 9 

Knoblauch ,. 10 " 11 

Leona, long ; . 10 " 13 

Leona, large 10 " 12 

Regular Frankfurts 11 " 13% 

Vienna Frankfurts 19 " 22 

High grade Frankfurts 18 " 20 

Regular pork 2 " 4 

Little pig pork 2 " 4 

High grade breakfast 1% " 3 

Blood 31 " 36 

Liver 12 " 14 

Tongue 38 " 40 

Polish 12 " 14 

Head cheese 39 " 42 

Luncheon beef i . . 47 " 50 

Boneless pigs feet 22 " 25 

Minced ham 6 " 9 

Berlin ham 22 " 27 

Cooked pressed ham 15 " 17 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 385 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE. 

AIR DRYING AND SMOKING. 

In the foregoing chapter on sausage, the author has 
treated entirely on the different varieties of domestic 
sausage, all of which, except pork sausage, are cooked 
and smoked. Under the head of '' Summer Sausage " 
he takes up an entirely different article, this being a 
sausage that is dried and smoked, during the time of 
which the ingredients used for seasoning effect a cure. 
This sausage will keep for months without being cooked 
if properly handled. It is necessary, however, that every 
detail be very carefully watched, as a slight omission or 
error in its manufacture causes immense losses at times. 

As this is strictly an air drie(^ sausage, weather con- 
ditions have a great deal to do with its successful manu- 
facture, and it is, therefore, necessary to have special 
facilities in the way of coolers, smoke houses and dry 
rooms, the proper arrangement of whic^h is somewhat 
expensive at the start. It is impracticable for any sau- 
sage manufacturer to presume to make this article in 
large quantities unless he has the proper facilities, and 
it is the manufacturers who do make it in large quan- 
tities that generally make the most profit, because they 
are able to keep down their cost of producing per 
hundred weight to a minimum in handling a large quan- 
tity. This is why it is more profitable for small ^manu- 



386 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

facturers to buy their cervelat, especially the high grade 
fine article, rather than to endeavor to manufacture it 
themselves. 

PRESERVATIVE FOR DRY SAUSAGES, 

To manufacture summer sausage successfully there 
is nothing of more importance than the selection of the 
proper preservative. There are many kinds offered for 
sale on the market, some of which are excellent and 
others to be avoided. Too much care cannot be taken in 
selecting this preservative, as the manufacturer does not 
know the effect this material will have on the sausage 
until a month or six weeks after it is manufactured, and 
if at that time it is found that a mistake has been made 
it becomes a very costly one. After a great deal of ex- 
perimenting, covering a period of several years, the 
author recommends the use of the article known to the 
trade as " Diamond A " preservative, which may be ob- 
tained from all leading butchers supply houses. This 
preservative is compounded with a vegetable coloring 
matter and it therefore acts not only as an agent for pre- 
serving the sausage but also gives it a desirable color. 

Absolutely fresh material is required in the manufac- 
ture of this sausage and much cooler space is necessary 
in order to allow the meat to stand, after rocking, from 
twelve to forty-eight hours, as the case may be, before 
stuffing, as it is necessary to give the seasoning, color and 
preservatives a chance to properly work through the 
meat and also to allow the meat to become firm. If the 
sausage is stuffed immediately after it is rocked, it is 
liable to wrinkle in the smoke house, which gives it an 
unsavory appearance. 

A hanging room in which the temperature can be 
properly controlled should be available in which the 
sausage can be hung until the casings are sufficiently 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 387 

dried for the smoke house. "While the sausage should be 
dry, it should not be allowed to become so dry that the 
casings are gloss}^ or hard. This is a very important 
matter as the sausage will not take the correct color if 
the smoke does not penetrate the casings, or if they are 
allowed to become too dry. This applies particularly to 
sausage in beef middles, also to sausage stuffed in hog 
bungs, though not to as great an extent. 

In preparing the casings for the smoking process by 
endeavoring to prevent the sausage from becoming too 
dry there is danger of their becoming slimy, which is 
even more detrimental than the over dryness. Slimy 
sausage will not take the smoke and will sour quickly if 
not properly handled. Sausage in both beef casings and 
hog casings should be dried before smoking, so that the 
outside will feel about like the back of one 's hand. 

In order to obtain this result it is necessary to have 
plenty of hanging room space so that the proper tem- 
j)erature can be given the entire lot of sausage which is 
being prepared for smoke. If the space is hung too 
closely with sausage, it should be moved about from the 
center to the sides of the room ^ occasionally so that all 
the sausage receives the proper ventilation. 

The manufacturer should have sufficient space to 
allow the sausage to hang after it is stuffed and before 
it is smoked, for from two to three days, and sometimes 
longer. In the winter season, which is the proper time 
for manufacturing high grade summer sausage, it is a 
good practice to allow it to hang as long as possible be- 
fore smoking, but it must be watched to prevent sliming 
or becoming too dry. 

SMOKING SUMMER SAUSAGE OR CERVELAT. 

It is necessary to smoke different grades and kinds 
of this sausage in different temperatures and for' differ- 



388 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ent periods. Smoke houses used for smoking summer 
sausage or cervelat are entirely different from smoke 
houses used for smoking domestic sausage such as Bo- 
logna, Frankfurts, etc. Summer sausage has to be 
smoked over a cold smoke and for a very much longer 
period. 

The rail or track system is used by a great many 
manufacturers of this article very satisfactorily, the ar- 
rangement of the smoke houses being on the same prin- 
ciple as those for the domestic sausage, except that the 
tracks or sections are farther apart and the houses fitted 
with two or three tracks, side by side, instead of the 
single track system. In other words, the houses are 
much larger, being practically square, or 12 x 14 feet in 
size and in all cases they should be built of brick. 

The sheet iron houses which have been experimented 
with, especially for summer sausage, have proved to be 
complete failures. The bricks not only protect the house 
from the varying outside temperatures, but hold the 
heat, which is desirable and necessary in the successful 
smoking of this kind of sausage. 

The distance from the fire should be in any case, 
whether the track system or the ordinary smoke house 
with the beam system is used, 12 feet, and in some cases, 
such as in smoking summer sausage in bladders, or 
Braunschweiger in hog casings, the distance from the fire 
should be 20 feet or more. This, however, will be ex- 
plained in the formulas for making the different kinds of 
sausage. 

The main point to be considered in the construction 
of a smoke house for summer sausage or cervelat is to 
have it so arranged that the heat can be regulated to dif- 
ferent temperatures, also the amount of smoking, as each 
and every kind of sausage requires a different tempera- 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 389 

ture. The ventilation of the smoke house should be per- 
fect and absolutely controllable, as the weather condi- 
tions have a great deal to do with the successful smoking 
of sausage and the houses should be arranged so that 
they can be kept at a uniform temperature and humidity 
during any kind of weather. 

As in the case of domestic sausage, no smoke house 
should be used for summer sausage or cervelat unless 
the temperature can be maintained uniform and the walls 
in proper condition. 

Since, as is well known, summer sausage of all kinds 
is not cooked before it goes to smoke, a cold or damp 
smoke house will "ring" the sausage even quicker than a 
cold smoke house will "ring" Bologna, therefore extreme 
caution should be used in this particular. 

Hardwood and hardwood sawdust are used exclu- 
sively in smoking summer sausage, and both wood and 
sawdust should be absolutely dry when the fire is started. 
In some cases, however, after the sausage is very nearly 
smoked, it is advisable to use a little damp sawdust be- 
fore completing the operation. 

After the smoking process is completed the sausage 
is taken to the dry room whete the temperature can be 
kept at all times between 46° and 53° F,, the proper tem- 
perature being 48° F., if it can be maintained. The dry 
room must be fitted with steam coils running underneath 
the sausage and around the sides of the room and under- 
neath the windows in order to give the necessary heat. 
The room must be supplied with plenty of windows for 
light and ventilation and should be very high so as to 
permit of all the required overhead ventilation. At all 
times the windows must be kept open a little to allow 
fresh air to enter no matter how cold the outside tem- 
perature. If the weather is damp the windows nearest 



390 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tlie top or the top ventilator of the room should be 
opened a little way. 

Steam should always be turned on in damp weather 
to drj the air, providing, of course, the weather is not 
too warm and the temperature in the room can be kept 
as low as 53° F, The room should always be arranged 
in sections, so that there may be an empty section be- 
tween each lot of new sausage. As the sausage becomes 
drier it can be hung more closely. It is well, however, 
to have plenty of space, so as to be able to regulate this 
according to the weather. The sausage, in any case, 
should not dry too quickly and too much air will dry it 
near the casing, which will cause the sausage to stick to 
it and become dry. In tliat case the inside will not 
dry uniformly and the sausage will wrinkle and in some 
instances become sour. 

The different kinds of sausage require different 
places in the dry room. Some require an abundance of 
air and others, like " Holsteiner " and '' farmer " 
sausage, if properly smoked, can be hung where it would 
not be policy to hang summer sausage in hog bungs. 
As both of these sausages are coarse chopped, they can 
be handled with much less fear of being spoiled than the 
finer chopped sausage. However, with every description 
of dry sausage, a great deal of care must be exercised 
and constant attention given it, or poor results will fol- 
low. 

Summer sausage in hog bungs can be subjected to 
more draft or air than summer sausage in beef casings. 
Consequently beef casings are generally hung near the 
center of the room where they receive plenty of air but 
no draft. Summer sausage in both hog bungs and beef 
casings if properly handled can be shipped, in three 
stages of dryness, as follows: New, twenty to twenty- 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 391 

five days old; medium dry, forty to forty-five days old; 
dry, sixty to seventy-five days old. 

The cheaper grades of summer sausage, many differ- 
ent kinds of which are manufactured, can be shipped in 
much less time than is indicated above. In fact there is 
sausage made which can be shipped almost immediately 
from the smoke house. This sausage is allowed to stand 
for some time before chopping and after stuffing, before 
being put in the smoke house. It is then smoked very 
hard, or with more heat than the better grades of this 
sausage. Some manufacturers use more heat than smoke, 
coloring their casings before smoking with the same Zan- 
zibar coloring that is used for Bologna, but it does not 
produce a first-class article. 

PEEPAKING CASINGS FOR SUMMEE SAUSAGE. 

In preparing casings for summer sausage of all 
kinds it is necessary, in order to insure good results, 
that casings be prepared, especially hog bungs, at least 
thirty days or even several months before they 
are used. There are always many fat bungs in hog 
casings and in preparing them and putting them down 
in salt brine for thirty days ot longer, the fat on the 
casings becomes dry and there is less danger of the 
sausage becoming sour. Summer sausage will become 
sour as quickly from using fat hog bungs as from any 
other cause, therefore these must be tlioroughly cured 
before using. Beef middles or rounds can be used almost 
immediately after they have been prepared. As they 
must necessarily be thoroughly fatted before they leave 
the preparing rooms they are generally in good condition 
in this respect when received, and therefore do not re- 
quire as much time in the curing or preparing as do hog 
bungs. Fat beef middles or beef rounds spoil the ap- 



392 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

pearance of tlie sausage when dry as tlie fat always 
sliows through the casings. 

DRY ROOM CAUTION. 

Do not hang green and dry sausage in the same room. 
It is advisable to keep dry rooms for smoked sausage as 
free from mold as possible. While a slight mold does 
not hurt summer sausage (in fact some summer sausage 
requires this before it is ready for shipment), it will be 
found that smoked sausage drys better and quicker in a 
room that can be kept free of mold. Sausage that molds 
too much before it is dry necessarily has to be washed. 
This process does not hurt the sausage, and in some 
cases washing does it good, especially if by neglect or 
otherwise it has become greasy in the smoke house. 
Sausage will not dry as rapidly if greasy and the process 
of washing it quickens the drying. In washing sausage 
warm water, not Jiot, should be used. A little sal soda in 
the water is desirable. 

FORMULAS FOR CERVELAT. 
FORMULA A. 

40 pounds beef chucks, very lean and entirely free from all 

sinews. 
90 pounds porlv trimmings, trimmed in same manner. 
20 pounds shoulder fat, cut into strips about 2 inches square 

and cut into shavings as fine as it is possible to get 

them. 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt. 

2 ounces whole white pepper. 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative for summer sausage. 

"W^iole white pepper is always thrown on the block 
five minutes before rocking is completed. The beef is 
first ground through a 7/64th-incli plate, after which it 
is placed on the rocker together with the fat and season- 
ing and rocked for about five minutes. Then the pork 
trimmings are added, the whole being rocked for from 
twenty-five to thirty minutes. 

After this operation it is taken to the cooler where 
the temperature is not lower than 38° F., nor higher than 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 393 

40° F. It is there spread upon benches provided for this 
purpose, about 10 or 12 inches thick, where it is allowed 
to remain for three days, after which it is stuffed by hand 
machines into either hog bungs or beef middles as re- 
quired. 

The sausage is then taken to the hanging room and 
allowed to hang for two or three days, according to the 
weather, at a temperature of from 48° to 50° F. If the 
weather is damp great care must be taken to prevent the 
sausage from sliming and it is sometimes necessary to 
keep the temperature up to 55° F. in order to keep the 
room as free from dampness as possible. If the sausage 
begins to slime as stated previously, there is great danger 
of its becoming sour or hollow in the center. It is al- 
ways advisable, if it is impossible otherwise to keep the 
sausage from sliming, to put it into smoke as soon as the 
slime is detected, which puts a stop to it. 

When the sausage is ready for smoke, which, as stated 
before, is, under favorable circumstances, from two to 
three days after it is dried, it should be hung in a smoke 
house where the temperature is as near 48° F. as possible 
and gradually heated until the temperature reaches 
70° F. It must be kept at this 'point throughout the en- 
tire process of smoking, or for about twenty-four hours 
for beef middles and forty-eight hours for hog bungs. 

In starting a fire in the smoke house as little wood 
should be used as possible, say one ^tick of ash cord 
wood, just enough fire to keep the sawdust smoking with- 
out blazing. Keep adding sawdust until there is suf- 
ficient fire to scatter it over the entire bottom of the 
smoke house, keeping the sawdust ignited only from the 
coals of the wood with which the fire was started and 
which generally lasts through the entire process of smok- 
ing. If the smoke houses are natural^ cold it may be 



394 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

necessary to keep more fire than mentioned in order to 
keep the temperature up to 70° F. 

The smoking of this sausage requires the greatest 
possible care. If the temperature is allowed to rise too 
high for any length of time, it will sour. If the fire is 
too low and smoke too dense there will be a smoke ring, 
especially so if the sausage is not properly dried before 
it goes to smoke. Many manufacturers dip their sausage 
in hot water, especially that stuffed in beef middles, after 
it has been smoked, some using a light color in the water. 
However, this is a poor practice and is not recommended. 
It is advisable, however, that the sausage should not be 
exposed to too sudden or severe a change in temperature 
immediately after removing from the smoke house. If 
it is some distance from the smoke house to the dry 
room it is advisable to cover the sausage on the trucks 
with a tarpaulin or cover so that the cold air cannot 
strike it. It is a good idea not to hang the sausage up on 
the racks immediately, but to place it on the bottom rack, 
close together, so that it may cool gradually. 

The following are several formulas for the making 
of cervelat or summer sausage: 

FORMULA B. FORMULA C. 

45 pounds beef chucks, 30 pounds pork cheek meat, 

82 pounds lean pork trimmings 30 pounds beef trimmings, 

23 pounds shoulder fat, 90 pounds pork trimmings, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preserv- 6 ounces formula "A" preserv- 

ative, ative. , 

FORMULA D. 

40 pounds pork cheek meat, 

30 pounds beef trimmings, 

50 pounds lean pork trimmings, 

20 pounds shoulder fat, 

10 pounds pickled pork trimmings, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 395 

Trim beef chucks very lean, entirely free from 
sinews. Pork trimmings must be lean except in Formula 
C, where fat pork trimmings are used. White whole 
pepper is always thrown on the block a few minutes be- 
fore chopping. Shoulder fat should be handled the same 
as in Formula A. Pickled pork trimmings are ground 
through an Enterprise i/i-inch plate. Beef chucks and 
trimmings are ground through an Enterprise 7/64-incli 
plate. Pork trimmings and cheeks are chopped on a 
rocker ; otherwise handled same as Formula A. 

FORMULA E. 

40 pounds shank meat, 

30 pounds pork cheek meat, 

10 pounds beef cheek meat, 

10 pounds pork hearts, 

20 pounds pork trimmings, 

40 pounds neck fat or fat trimmed from Boston butts, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6% ounces formula "A" preservative. 

If neck fat is used it is cut into small pieces but not 
shaved. If fat from Boston butts is used it is run 
through an Enterprise Vi-inch plate. This fat, of 
course, has more or less lean in it but might be called 
very fat trimmings. Pork hearts, beef cheek and shank 
meat are all ground through an Enterprise 7/64- 
inch plate. Beef and fat are always put on the block 
with the seasoning first. Pork trimmings and cheeks 
are added five or ten minutes after rocking; otherwise 
handled same as Formulas A, B, C and D. 

FORMULAS FOR FARMER SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA A. 

50 pounds shank meat, 

10 pounds beef cheek meat, 

30 pounds pork trimmings, 

30 pounds pork cheek meat, 

10 pounds pickled pork trimmings, 

20 pounds shoulder fat, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. i 



396 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Shank meat, beef cheek meat and pork cheek meat 
are ground through an Enterprise i/4-inch plate; 
shank fat is cut into small pieces but not shaved. Ground 
material and shank fat should be put on the block first 
with the seasoning and chopped five or ten minutes, 
when the pork trimmings are added, the whole being 
chopped fifteen or twenty minutes. As this meat is very 
coarse, it should, after being chopped, be mixed in a 
mixer for three or four minutes and then be thoroughly 
mixed by hand, after which it is taken to the cooler and 
handled the same as cervelat. It is then stuffed by hand 
stuffers in beef middles about 11 inches in length, and is 
allowed to hang in the dry room, same as cervelat and 
for about the same length of time, before smoking. The 
same precautions should be taken with this as with 
cervelat, relative to slime, etc. 

It is smoked from six to eight hours at a temperature 
of from 65° to 70° F. It must be handled very carefully 
in smoke as too much heat will wrinkle it. A great deal 
of farmer sausage is allowed to dry naturally without 
smoking, especially in the winter months, and where 
there is plenty of room and a proper place. However, 
in damp weather and through the summer months it is 
always advisable to smoke it. This sausage can be made 
throughout the summer months, provided there are 
proper dry rooms, which can be regulated and kept mod- 
erately cool. Some manufacturers have used dry cooler 
space in the summer time, which could be kept at a tem- 
perature of 46° to 48° F., but the best results are ob- 
tained by drying in a room where the sausage can have 
the benefit of the outside air. This sausage, if handled 
properly according to the above directions, will be ready 
for shipment in twenty-five days ; it should then be in a 
medium drv state. 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 397 

FORMULA B. 

80 pounds medium fat pork trimmings, 

20 pounds pork cheek meat, 

50 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

Beef and pork cheek meat ground tlirongli an Enter- 
prise 7/64th-inch plate. Put ground material with sea- 
soning on block first and chop five or ten minutes, then 
add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes. 
Stuff and handle same as Formula A. 

FORMULA C. 

40 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat, 
10 pounds pickled beef trimmings, 
100 pounds pork trimmings, 

5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 

2 ounces whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

The beef trimmings or shank meat should be ground 
through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate. Put ground 
material with seasoning on block first and chop five or 
ten minutes ; then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen 
or twenty minutes. Stuff in beef middles; otherwise 
handle same as Formula A. 

H0I;STP:T]SrER SArSAGE. 

This sausage is identically the same as farmer sau-, 
sage and is handled the same except that it is stuffed in 
beef rounds. The same care is necessary as with the 
farmer from the time it leaves the block until ready for 
shipment, which should be in about twenty-five days. 

SWEDISH MEDWURST OE GOTTBERG SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

30 pounds pickled beef trimmings, 

30 pounds fresh beef trimmings, 

90 pounds medium fat pork trimmings, 

1 povmd rice flour or corn flour, 
5% pounds salt, 

2 ounces coriander, 

3% ounces white pepper, < 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 



398 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Beef trimmings are ground through an Enterprise 
7/64th-inch plate. Ground beef and seasoning are put on 
block first and chopped five or ten minutes when pork 
trimmings are added, the whole being chopped twenty to 
twenty-five minutes. This sausage is stuffed in beef 
middles 14 inches in length, and handled in other respects 
same as cervelat in beef middles. 

The old fashioned way of handling Swedish med- 
wurst was to pickle the sausage, after it was stuffed, in 
a vat of 50-degree strength pickle, for ten hours, when 
it was taken out of the vats, hung up and allowed to 
dry for twenty-four hours, then smoked the same as 
cervelat in beef middles. If this process is used, four 
and one-half pounds of salt to 150 pounds of meat is all 
that is necessary. However, as good results can be ob- 
tained by not pickling the sausage, and it is not gener- 
ally done by manufacturers of this article. 

BRAUNSCHWETGEE SAUSAGE. 

■ FORMULA. 

50 pounds selected back fat trimmings, 

45 pounds selected ham trimmings, 

25 pounds selected shoulder trimmings, 

20 pounds beef chucks trimmed extra lean and free 

from sinews, 
10 pounds shoulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 

2y2 ounces white pepper (ground), 
1 ounce whole white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

Beef chucks are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate. 
Shoulder fat is cut into strips about 2 inches square, 
and cut into shavings, as fine as it is possible to cut 
them. Ground beef, shoulder fat and seasoning are put 
on the block and rocked ten minutes when ham and 
shoulder trimmings are added, the back fat trimmings 
being the last to go on the block. The whole is rocked 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 399 

twenty to thirty-five minutes. This is not a fine chopped 
sansage, however, and is not as coarse as farmer sausage 
hut a great deal coarser than regular cervelat. It should 
he stuffed into short, lean, thick hog bungs about 14 
inches in length, and handled in every respect, from 
the block to the smoke house, same as cervelat in hog 
bungs. As this is a very fat sausage greater care needs 
to be taken in smoking than with any other summer 
sausage made, and it should be hung near the top of the 
smoke house as far away from the fire as possible. For 
this reason it is important that the sausage should be 
j)roperly dried after stuffing before smoking. Smoke at 
a temperature as near 65° F. as possible for thirty-six 
to forty-eight hours. 

d'arles sausage. 

FORMULA. 

30 pounds extra lean beef chucks trimmed absolutely free 

from sinews, 
70 pounds fresh lean especially trimmed pork shoulder trim- 
mings free from sinews, 
30 pounds selected back fat pork trimmings, 
20 pounds shoulder fat, 
5 pounds salt, 

2'/^ ounces white pepper (ground), 
1 ounce whole pepper, ^ 

114 ounces saltpetre, 
% ounce powdered borax, 
1/4 ounce boracic acid. 

In order to use the following additional seasoning it 
is advisable to chop at least six blocks, of 150 pounds 
each, of this sausage and mix in a large truck for the 
purpose, as this seasoning has to be added immediately 
after the meat has been chopped. For six blocks of this 
sausage, or 900 pounds, use : — 

1/4-pound package pure white gelatine, 

2 quarts strong imported French red wine, 

1 whole nutmeg, 

1% ounces whole cloves, , 

Vz ounce stick cinnamon. 



400 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Put the gelatine, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon in a 
thin bag and cook with the wine for ten or fifteen min- 
utes, just below boiling point. Strain the wine through 
a cloth to remove all particles of spice. When mod- 
erately cool mix the meat in thoroughly by hand, and at 
the same time mix in the shoulder fat, which is cut into 
shape of small dice and chopped on the rocker, and the 
beef which has been ground through an Enterprise 
7/64th-inch plate, after which the mixture is placed on 
the rocker with the dry seasoning and rocked for seven 
to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and 
the whole chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes, pro- 
viding the speed of the rocker is from fifty-two to fifty- 
four strokes per minute. 

This is a coarse sausage but not as coarse as farmer. 
After the beef and pork have been rocked, the wet season- 
ing and shoulder fat which has been previously cut into 
the shape of small square dice, is mixed thoroughly by 
hand, when it is taken to the cooler and allowed to stand 
from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is then stuffed by 
hand into No. 1 selected hog bungs entirely free from fat, 
and hung in a dry room where the temperature is about 
50° F., where it is entirely separate from other sausage 
and where it can get plenty of air but no draft. After 
it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours, if firm 
and the casing moderately dry, wrap the casings with 
No. 4 flax twine commencing at the small end, making a 
hitch with the twine every 2 inches the whole length 
of the sausage to the top or the bung end ; then hitch back 
every inch on the off side and back and forth again until 
two more hitches are made so that the strings will be 
about i/o inch apart when the last hitch is complete. 

Care must be taken to wrap the sausage tightly so 
that the strings will not fall off in the process of drying. 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 401 

After the sausage has been wound with string it should 
be taken to the dry room and dried very slowly without 
becoming moldy too soon. If hung in a room with other 
sausage, this article should be hung in between so that it 
will not get too much air or dry too quickly. It should 
be moved about very frequently, from the bottom to the 
top, and from the middle to the front and back of the 
section. This is one of the most difficult of summer 
sausages to make and but few manufacturers are success- 
ful in making them. Therefore the above instructions 
should be followed closely to obtain satisfactory results. 
Do not smoke. 

ITALIAIS" SALAMI SAUSAGE. 

Practically the same formula applies to Italian salami 
sausage as for D 'Aries sausage, except that generally 
not as high grade trimmings, either beef or pork, are 
used. However, it is advisable for a high grade Italian 
salami that the same grade of trinmiings be used and 
the same care is taken in preparing them. Identically the 
same seasoning is used. and also the same procedure is 
followed in every respect in regard to the chopping and 
handling of the meat. Smaller or less expensive hog 
bungs are used. They are generally what are known as 
medium primes and the sausage is usually shorter in 
length. However, this is a matter of preference as this 
sausage is made in lengths of from 12 to 22 inches. 
Handling after stuffing, to the wrapping process, is the 
same as that for D 'Aries sausage. Wrapping, however, 
is much simyjler and usually the same grade of twine is 
Qsed, but instead of wrapping the twine both ways, it is 
simply wound around tightly after three or four strings 
have been run from the top to the bottom of the sausage. 
This sausage is not smoked and is tied the same as 



402 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

D 'Aries, the same care being taken in every respect as 
regards temperatures, etc. 

MILANESE SALAMI SAUSAGE. 

FORMULA. 

50 pounds fresh lean specially trimmed pork shoulder, trim- 
ming free from sinews, 
60 pounds fresh Boston butt trimmings. 
20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed absolutely free 

from sinews, 
20 pounds shoulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 

2% ounces white pepper, 

1% ounces saltpetre, 

1 ounce whole pepper. 

Cliop at least six blocks (900 pounds) of this sausage 
and mix at one time by hand in a large truck constructed 
for the purpose, in order to add the following additional 
seasoning. For the six blocks use :— 

31/^ quarts strong imported French red wine, 
1/4-pound package pure white gelatine, 

4 nutmegs, 
% ounce whole cloves, 

1 ounce stick cinnamon. 

Prepare same as similar formula for D 'Aries sausage 
and mix with the meat after it has been rocked by hand 
thoroughly. The beef is ground through an Enter- 
prise 7/64th-inch plate. Shoulder fat is cut into small 
thin pieces but not in the shape of dice. Rock the beef 
and the shoulder fat together with the dry seasoning for 
seven to ten minutes, then add the pork trimmings, the 
whole being chopped twenty to twenty-tive minutes. This 
sausage is not as coarse as D 'Aries or Italian salami. 

After the meat and wet seasoning have been mixed 
thoroughly put in the cooler to stand twelve to twenty- 
four hours. Then stuff by hand into hog middles, as 
large as can be obtained. Prepare at least thirty days be- 
fore using. Care must be taken in stuffing as they are 
very tender and break easily. The only way to stuff them 
successfully is to arrange a board to hold the casings after 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 403 

they are stuffed so that it will be just high enough from 
the tiller to permit the casings to be filled and not handled 
other than to hold them witli sufficient pressure to stutf 
as tightly as possible without breakage. 

If the middles break, which they are bound to do in 
many cases, patch them with a piece of hog middle when 
they are being wound with string. They should be lifted 
with care from the stuffing board, placed upon a truck 
and wrapped immediately with No. 4 flax twine, the 
same as D 'Aries sausage, the string running equidistant 
around the sausage from either end and being wound 
around it so as to form squares. 

As the casings are so very tender, it requires great 
care in wrapping and the sausage is usually not of uni- 
form appearance. Greater care must be used in tying 
this sausage than D 'Aries, salami or any other sausage 
known. The casings are so thin that the meat will be- 
come dry and hard on the outside or near the casings 
while the inside will remain moist, therefore too much 
exposure is not desirable. They should be watched 
closely after stringing, because, not being allowed to dry 
before they are strung, the handling which they get will 
naturally make them slime very easily. It takes at 
least sixty days to dry this sausage properly with best 
conditions. Not smoked. 

GEEMAN SALAMI SAUSA(^E. 
FORMULA. 
40 pounds beef chucks or beef shank meat, 
110 pounds regular pork trimmings, 

5 pounds salt, 

5% ounces white pepper, 
1% ounces garlic, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th- 
inch plate, rocked with the seasoning five to ten min- 
utes, when the pork trinunings are added and the whole 
chopped fifteen to twenty minutes. This is a. very coarse 



404 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

sausage, about the same as farmer sausage. It is well to 
mix the meat thoroughly by hand after it has been 
rocked, or to mix it carefully with a mixer. A " Stall- 
man ' ' mixer is better than a ^ ' Zimmerman ' ' for farmer 
sausage and coarse chopped summer sausage. However, 
the teeth in a " Zimmerman " mixer can be reversed so 
that it will not tear the meat, as it otherwise does. 

After the meat has been chopped it is removed to a 
cooler and allowed to stand the same period as farmer 
sausage before stuffing. Tt is then stuffed in either beef 
middles or hog bungs, as the case may be. After stuffing, 
the sausage is handled the same as Italian salami, except 
that it is wrapped with hitches same as D 'Aries sau- 
sage, there being only about one-half the number. 

This sausage can be very lightly smoked, but it is 
preferable to dry it the same as D 'Aries and Italian sau- 
sage. It is stuffed in beef middles and should be handled 
the same as farmer except that it is wrapped with string 
about the same number of hitches as salami in hog bungs. 
This latter also can be very lightly smoked. The ma- 
jority of manufacturers always smoke Italian salami 
in beef casings a very little, usually about twelve hours 
with as little smoke as possible. This is done to prevent 
sliming, as it is ver^^ hard to air-dry beef-middle sausage 
without the very best conveniences, or dry rooms where it 
can be hung apart from other sausage. 
hustgakiajSt salami sausage. 

FORMULA. 

90 pounds lean pork trimmings, 

35 pounds beef chuclis trimmed free from sinews, 

25 pounds shoulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 

1% ounces white pepper, 

1 ounce garlic, 

5y2 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

The beef chucks are ground through an Enter- 
prise 7/64tli-inch plate. The shoulder fat is shaved 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 405 

into thin pieces and both the beef and the fat, with the 
seasoning, are rocked seven to ten minutes, when the 
pork trimmings are added, and the whole is rocked from 
eighteen to twenty-two minutes. This is a moderately 
coarse sausage, about the same as Milanese salami. 

After the meat is rocked it is handled in the cooler 
the same as other summer sausage and stuffed into extra 
large beef middle ends, which are, when stuffed, 22 to 
26 inches long and weigh from twelve to twenty pounds 
each. 

Great care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to 
stuff it tightly and two or three lengths of string should 
be run from the large to the small end and vice versa, 
so as to prevent it from breaking, also to keep it straight, 
and it should be hung, of course, the small end down. 

This sausage is allowed to hang, before being put in 
the smoke house, three or four days in a dry atmosphere, 
and then smoked over a cold smoke at a temperature the 
same as for summer sausage in beef middles, for from 
fifty-five to sixty hours. Handle after smoking the same 
as summer sausage in'beef casings. It usually takes, 
under favorable circumstances, sixty to seventy days 
before the sausage is ready for shipment. 

This sausage is used very extensively in Germany 
and Austria and there is some of it used in Pennsyl- 
vania. However, there is not a very general demand 
for it in the United States. 

THUKINGEE SALAMI SAUSAGE. 



30 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews, 
90 pounds fresh pork blade or shoulder meat, trimmed free 

from sinews, 
30 pounds shoulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 
1 ounce garlic, 

3% ounces white pepper, / 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 



406 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch 
plate and rocked with the fat and seasoning, the fat hav- 
ing been cut into small pieces and shaved. Rock from 
seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added 
and the whole is chopped eighteen to twenty-two 
minutes. 

This sausage is rocked about as coarse as Milanese 
salami. After it is rocked it is handled in the cooler the 
same as other summer sausage and stuffed in large calf 
bladders which have been soaked a short time before 
stuffing so that they will be pliable. Care must be taken 
in stuffing this sausage to fill the bladders as full as pos- 
sible. Use a skewer, also a string hanger. 

Allow it to hang two or three days before smok- 
ing, in a moderately cool temperature (50° to 55° F.), 
where there is no draft, and smoke over a cold smoke 
for forty-eight hours, the same as Braunschweiger, and 
Gothair, the sausage being hung near the top of the 
smoke house. Do not smoke at the same time with any 
other sausage. 

Unless care is taken in smoking, the bladders will 
come out wrinkled, which spoils the appearance and con- 
sequently the sale of the sausage. Hang in the dry room 
with beef middle cervelat and handle in every respect the 
same. This sausage is usually ready for shipment in 
forty to fifty days. 

MOETADELLA SAUSAGE. 

FORMULA. 

135 pounds absolutely fresh lean trimmings, 
15 pounds fresh lean beef chucks, 
10 pounds slioulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 

11/^ ounces saltpetre, 

2'Y2 ounces white pepper. 

Additional wet seasoning is used for this sausage, 
therefore it is advisable to chop it six blocks at a time 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 407 

and mix it by hand in a large truck constructed for the 
purpose, as the seasoning must be added immediately 
after the meat has been chopped. For six blocks use : — • 

3% quarts strong imported French red wine, 

1/4-pound pacliage pure wtiite gelatine, 
8 nutmegs, 

1 ounce whole cloves, 
3 ounces stick cinnamon, 
41/^ ounces bay leaves, 
2y2 ounces split coriander. 

Prepare this seasoning same as for D 'Aries sausage, 
then mix the wet seasoning with the meat in a truck. 
Scatter through it twelve ounces of whole white pepper 
and two ounces of coriander. The beef is ground through 
an Enterprise 7/64th-incli i3late and chopped on the 
block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes, 
when the pork trimmings are added and the whole 
cho]3ped thirty to thirty-five minutes. This is a very fine 
sausage. After the meat has been chopped mix the 
shoulder fat, which is cut into the shape of small dice 
(same as for D 'Aries sausage), with the meat and mix 
in the wet seasoning at the same time. 

Eemove to a cooler and allow it to stand from twelve 
to twenty-four hours, then stuff into medium-sized beef 
bladders, which must be soake^d in lukewarm water a 
few moments before they are stuffed, in order to make 
them pliable, and care must be taken to stuff them as 
tightly as possible. Skewer, as well as tie, them and also 
wrap immediately with heavy coarse fl^x twine, making 
about two wraps the long way of the bladder and one 
wrap around the center, the twine terminating in a 
hanger. This sausag-e must not be hung by the tied end 
or by the same string that the bladder is tied with, for 
in such case they will fall in the smoke house, or when 
drying. 

This sausage should be allowed to hang for twelve 
hours after stuffing in a hot smoke house with more heat 



408 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

than smoke at a temperature of about 90° F. ; then 
cook in clear water for four hours at a temperature of 
150° F.; wash off thoroughly with boiling water when 
taken from the cooking vat and hang them up in a mod- 
erately cool place or dry room where the temperature is 
about 48° to 50° F. They will be ready to ship in four 
or five days. 

This sausage can be smoked sufficiently heavy so that 
cooking is unnecessary if proper facilities are available 
in smoke house. The house should be arranged with 
steam coils so that a temperature as high as 150° F. can 
be obtained during the process of smoking. This really 
is the most satisfactory way of handling this sausage. 

LTON SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 

120 pounds extra lean selected pork trimmings, pork blade 
meat being preferred, trimmed free from sinews, 
20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews, 
10 pounds shoulder fat, 
5 pounds salt, 
2% ounces white pepper, 
1 ounce whole pepper, 
1% ounces saltpetre. 

It is necessary to use an additional wet seasoning for 
this sausage; at least six blocks should be chopped so as 
to mix properly and the seasoning must be added im- 
mediately after chopping. For six blocks lyon sausage 
use the same formula for wet seasoning as for Milanese 
salami, and prepare in the same way. Grind the beef 
through a 7/64th-inch plate and chop first on the block 
with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes when 
pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped thirty 
to thirty-five minutes. This is a very fine chopped 
sausage. After the beef and pork have been rocked the 
wet seasoning and shoulder fat, which has been pre- 
viously cut into the shape of small dice, are mixed with it 
thoroughlv bv hand. 



SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 409 

The meat is tken taken to a cooler and allowed to 
stand the same period as D 'Aries or Milanese salami, 
when it is stuffed by a hand stuffer into No. 1 hog bungs 
free from fat, and hung in a dry room where the temper- 
ature is about 50° F. and where it can be kept entirely 
separate from other sausage, with plenty of air and no 
draft. After it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight 
hours and the casings are moderately dry, wrap the sau- 
sage with No. 4 flax twine, both lengthwise and around 
so as to form a mesh about I/2 inch square. It is handled 
the same as D 'Aries or Milanese salami. 

GOTHAIE SAUSAGE. 
FORMULA. 
20 pounds extra lean beef chucks free from sinews, 
110 pounds extra lean pork trimmings free from sinews, 
20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 

5 pounds salt, 

3% ounces white pepper, 

6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 

The beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64:th- 
inch plate and together with the shoulder fat, which has 
been shaved as thin as possible and cut into the shape of 
small dice, is mixed in mixer with the seasoning for from 
seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added 
and the whole chopped for thirty to thirty-tive min- 
utes, after which it is taken to a cooler and handled the 
same as other summer sausage. It is stuffed into short 
No. 1 lean hog bungs, or bungs that are free from fat. 
This sausage is handled in every respect the same as 
cervelat sausage, except smoking. It should be smoked 
lightly with the same temperatures and same relative po- 
sition in the smoke house as Braunschweiger sausage, 
and about the same length of time. It is handled after 
smoking, in the dry room, same as Braunschweiger. 

LEHIGH VALLEY SUMMEE SAUSAGE. 

This sausage is made from lean bull chucks, the meat 
being ground through an Enterprise i/4-incli plate, 



410 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

then regronnd through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch 
plate and rocked on a rocker for fifteen minutes. The 
seasoning is mixed on the rocker and is as follows for 100 
pounds of meat: — 

SEASONING FORMULA. 

1/3-pound fine salt, 
1% ounces saltpetre, 

4 ounces formula A preservative, 

5 ounces mace, 

1 ounce ground cloves, 

2 ounces allspice, 

4 ounces black pepper, 

6 ounces coriander, 
1 ounce sugar, 

After it is chopped it is put into a '^ Zimmerman " 
mixer and mixed for about five minutes. It is then taken 
to a cooler and spread on tables made for the purpose, 
about 8 or 10 inches thick, and allowed to remain for about 
three days, when it is stuffed into beef bungs, sack pieces 
being preferable. After it is allowed to stand in a tem- 
perature of 48° F. until the casings become moderately 
dry, it is hung in a smoke house and smoked for ten days 
or two weeks, at a temperature of between 50° and 
60° F. Great care should be taken in smoking this ar- 
ticle, as it requires but a light smoke. 

After it is taken from the smoke house, it is hung 
in a dry room for the purpose, where a temperature of 
48° to 50° F. can be maintained, and where the sausage 
can be kept perfectly dry. This sausage takes from 
tAvo to three months to dry thoroughl^'^, and sometimes 
longer. 



LARD AND GREASE 411 



CHAPTEE XIX. 
LARD AND GREASE. 

LARD REFINING. 

As shown by tests given in a previous chapter from 
13 to 15 per cent of the live weight of the hog is fresh 
lard, consequently at points where large numbers of 
hogs are killed the manufacture of lard is a very im- 
portant factor in the packing business. The principal 
grades, as commonly made at large manufacturing points, 
are known as: — 

First, kettle rendered lard. 

Second, prime steam lard, 

Third, refined lard, 

Fourth, compound lard. 

Tallow and beef stearine al^o enter largely into the 
manufacture of refined as well as compound lards. 

The refining of lard in large packing houses dates 
from a comparativel}^ recent period, and many people 
will be surprised to know that even th^ largest packers 
only added lard refining to their business within the 
past fifteen or twenty years. Previous to that time lard 
refineries were operated by firms entirely independent 
of the packers, who bought their supply of lard in the 
form of what is known as ' ' prime steam ' ' at the differ- 
ent packing centers, converting it into the diiferent 
grades in their own establishments. In the natural evo- 
lution of the business this branch was taken up by the 



412 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

packers and today forms a very important adjunct to the 
modern packing business. 

Before modern methods were in vogue, lard refining 
consisted in pressing from the lard about 30 to 40 
per cent of lard oil, this being sold for lubricating and 
lighting purposes, etc., and mixing the remaining stearine 
"with the proper percentage of straight lard, thus making 
a very high grade of pure lard. At this time the method 
of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by 
the use of caustic soda, pearl ash, lime, alum, or other 
mixtures of more or less value, the principal ingredient, 
however, always being caustic soda. The underlying 
principle is that the alkali, used in proper proportion, 
saponified the acid and sediments in the lard, making it 
lighter. This process, however, is a thing of the past, 
very few, if any, of the refiners now use it. 

About twenty years ago the method of refining lard 
with fullers earth was first inaugurated, and for years 
only imported earth coming from England was thought 
suitable for this purpose. Within the past five years, 
however, many deposits of fullers earth, of fair quality, 
have been discovered in the United States and American 
fullers earth is today used in quite a number of the 
lard refineries in at least three of the large packing 
house centers, and the indications are that with further 
improvements in mining and methods of grinding, and 
possibly also in the discovery of better beds or layers of 
this substance, it is safe to predict that ere long the manu- 
facturers of America will not have to go abroad for any 
of their supplies of fullers earth. 

An explanation of how fullers earth bleaches lard and 
its kindred fats would be interesting, if anyone knew the 
exact explanation, but so far there has been no scientific 
reason given that accounts for this property of this ma- 



LARD AND GREASE 413 

terial, therefore no chemical test can be aj^plied to dif- 
ferent samples of fullers earth to determine whether they 
are suitable for refining or not. The only safe test is the 
practical one of heating a sample together with lard and 
watching the result of the bleach. 

During this period of development in the packing 
house business the consideration of color was the pre- 
dominating influence. In improving the color of lard it 
is invariably done at the expense of the flavor, and a 
very wholesome and sweet odor, which is natural to the 
lard, is sacrificed in a greater or lesser degree to the 
advantage of color. The tendency today is to make lard 
white, even though it loses in odor and taste. In 
compounding lard this is always intensified by the 
general use of tallow. The use of tallow was de- 
veloped after the refining process by means of fullers 
earth was established and where tallow is used ex- 
cessively it gives a strong and more pungent odor 
to the lard than was found to be the case before this 
ingredient was used. However, sharp competition has 
necessitated the use of different ingredients to reduce 
the cost of the manufactured article. Nearl3^ all samples 
of pure refined lard contain more or less tallow in their 
makeup. 

Fullers earth is also used for bleaching cotton seed 
oil and other greases and fats which are necessarily sub- 
jected to the bleaching process. 

METHOD OE USIIN'G EULLEES EAETh! 

First see that the lard itself is dr}^ If the lard has 
been steamed out of tierces, or if there is any water in it, 
it must be settled long enough, in order to avoid a cloudy 
appearance when it begins to cool. The lard to be 
bleached is first placed in a round iron kettle, jacketed, 



414 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



the most suitable dimensions being about 6 feet in diam- 
eter and 4 feet deep, the kettle to be supplied with 
mechanical agitators. A sectional view of such a kettle 
is shown in Fig. 141 and a smaller kettle suitable 
for small houses is illustrated in Fig. 142. It was 
formerly the practice to use compressed air for agita- 
tion in order to thoroughly mix the fullers earth with 
the lard. This, however, has been discontinued in the 




l4 PIPE FL/<NGE 
.RIVCTED ON 



FIG. 141.— SECTION THROUGH TANK FOR MIXING FULLERS EARTH AND LARD. 



best refineries, as it was found that agitation with com- 
pressed air had a tendency to make the lard turn rancid 
quicker after exposure to the air tliaji if agitated by me- 
chanical force. The kettle is supplied with a vertical 
shaft, to the bottom of which is attached a blade shaped 
like a fan, about 14 inches in diameter. Around this is 
fitted a wire screen about 30 inches high made out of 
galvanized wire, 3/16-inch mesh, this screen clearing the 



LARD AND GREASE 



415 



blades of the fan about an inch. On top oi this screen is 
fixed an iron pipe approaching to witliin about 18 inches 
of the surface of the lard, when the kettle is filled. A 
kettle of this size will hold about 5,000 pounds of lard 
for one treatment. The agitating blade should revolve 
at a speed of from 125 to 175 revolutions per minute. 
This has the effect of producing a miniature whirlpool in 
the body of lard to be treated, by driving the lard through 
the screen against the sides of the kettle, while it rises 




FIG. 142.— FULLERS EARTH KETTLE FOR SMALL HOUSES. 

rapidly to the surface and goes down through the funnel- 
shaped tube to be again driven through ^the screen. 

In this way the fullers earth is thoroughly mixed in 
and if there is a tendency to " lump " the lumps are 
readily broken up by^ impact with the screen. Fullers 
earth is added to the lard in a proportion to suit the re- 
quirements of the particular lot to be treated, it being 
impossible to make a rule to fit all cases. The best way 
to determine, where there are large quantities of lard, 
is to take a small sample and make tests in the labora- 



416 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tory to learn the proper amount of earth to be used in 
each case. The point to be gained is to get the bleach 
with as little of the flavor of the earth as possible. Gen- 
erally speaking, from % to II/2 per cent of fullers earth 
will be required to get the desired result. 

The temperature at which lard should be bleached is 
a very important matter to be determined. The neces- 
sary amount of fullers earth required for a particular 
lot of lard is largely determined by its capacity for ab- 
sorbing fullers earth flavor. If the lard has been heavily 
cooked and has a strong steam flavor, a temperature of 
180° F. is correct. If the lard has not been well cooked 
a somewhat lower temperature is necessary. As a rule 
the lower the temperature at which bleaching is done 
the more fullers earth is required and consequently the 
greater objectionable flavor is imparted to the lard. It 
is apparent, therefore, that to get the proper bleach and 
at the same time as little earth flavor as possible is a 
point requiring careful and intelligent consideration in 
order to obtain the best results. 

When the lard is brought to the proper temperature, 
the proper percentage of fullers earth is thrown into the 
kettle, when it is agitated and as a general rule should 
be left in the agitator from eight to twelve minutes, and 
then pumped through the filter press as rapidly as pos- 
sible. There are some refiners who prefer to pump the 
lard and fullers earth immediately through the filter 
press without giving it any time in the kettle for agita- 
tion, but there seems to be no special advantage in this, 
and the bleach will be uncertain if the fullers earth is not 
thoroughly mixed before it goes through the filter press. 
It takes a certain length of time, as proved by experience, 
for fullers earth to do its work properly and a strong 
agitation of from eight to twelve minutes appears to be 



LARD AND GREASE 417 

the best method to adopt in order to obtain the full effect 
of the earth. 

After the contents of the kettle have been pumped 
through the filter air pressure should be turned into the 
filter press in order to blow out all the lard possible. 
After this live steam should be turned on, expelling the 
balance of the lard from the pipe. A large portion of 
this latter lard, however, is unfit to be used again, as it 
contains sediment and fullers earth combined, is of a 
reddish color, has a very rank, strong odor, and can be 
used only for grease purposes. 

Where tallow is used in pure or compound lard, it is 
always advisable to bleach the tallow separately. This is 
done in the same manner as described for lard, with the 
exception that about 3 per cent of fullers earth is used, 
bringing the tallow to a temperature of 180° F., after 
which it is pumped through the filter press and into the 
receiving tanks by itself. 

When it is compounded with the lard, the desired 
amount should be put into the kettle with the lard before 
it is treated and the two ingredients passed through the 
filter press together. The samcv is true of oleo-stearine, 
except that in the bleaching of this article from I/2 to IV^ 
per cent of fullers earth is sufficient. In using tallow, 
or stearine, it is done for the purpose of cheapening the 
product, as well as hardening it, the formula for same 
being made according to the values and conditions under 
which the lard is to be sold. For instance lard going 
south, or into a warm" climate, is made much harder than 
lard for a temperate climate ; hence lard formulas, gener- 
ally speaking, are worthless for general use, the ditferent 
formulas being made to suit widely different conditions, 
and their availability also depends to a considerable 
extent upon the fluctuation of values. 



418 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



After lard has been put through the filtering press 
it goes to a receiving tank and is next passed over rollers 
for chilling (Fig. 143). These consist of cast iron cylin- 
ders containing refrigerated brine. These cylinders re- 
volve at from ten to fourteen revolutions per minute, the 
lard being congealed on the outer surface. Fixed against 
the side of the cylinder is the sharp edge of a steel knife 
which scrapes very close to its surface. The lard coming 
in contact with the cool surface of the cylinders rapidly 
congeals and as it passes under the knife, it is scraped 




FIG. 143.— LARD COOLING CYLINDER.. 



off and drops into the pickers, or agitator. Here it is 
thoroughly beaten by a revolving shaft with pickers on 
it, so that all lumps are disintegrated and the grain is of 
a smooth, even consistency. Compound lard is drawn 
from this point into the different packages. Pure lard 
goes from there into what is known as a compound agi- 
tator, which is a jacketed kettle, where it is given a thor- 
ough agitation and drawn off as cool as possible, the ob- 
ject being to have the different ingredients thoroughly 
mixed at a low temperature, thereby avoiding a separa- 
tion when exposed to a higher temperature. If they are 



LARD AND GREASE 419 

not thus properly mixed as they cool off, when exposed to 
a higher temperature the oily substance will immediately 
separate from the heavier, rising to the top, making it 
unj^alable. 

For a receiving tank with a boat bottom for the re- 
ception of lard, oleo oils, or any grease which it is det- 
rimental to heat with direct steam, see Fig. 60, The 
illustration represents a tank 7 x 7 x 12 feet in size, hav- 
ing a capacity of 28,000 pounds. The tank proper is placed 
inside of a smaller or boat tank, leaving 4 inches of 
space all around. Into this space is carried a perforated 
steam pipe and space is filled with water which, by the 
heat of the steam, holds the contents of the tank at the 
desired temperature without a scorching or discoloring 
effect. This tank is particularly adapted for the hold- 
ing of oleo oils. 

COMPOUISrD LARD. 

Compound lard is a substitute for lard and is made of 
cotton seed oil and oleo stearine, or tallow, or both, as the 
case may be. The formula on this article varies accord- 
ing to the relative values of the ingredients. The gen- 
erally accepted formula is 80 per cent cotton seed oil, 
and 20 per cent oleo stearine. 

If the market price of oleo stearine is high, a for- 
mula may be substituted as follows : 75 per cent cotton 
seed oil, 714 per cent tallow, I7I/2 per qent oleo stearine. 
In cold weather even a smaller amount of stearine may 
be used and a proportionately larger amount of tallow. 

Before going into^ details on the making of compound 
lard it will be necessary to give a description of the 
method of handling cotton seed oil. 

COTTON SEED OIL. 

This is a product from which a large revenue is de- 
rived, while only a few years ago it was a bill of ex- 



420 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

pense to the cotton grower. Before the manufacture of 
cotton seed oil, the cotton seed, after being removed from 
the cotton, was thrown in large compost heaps and after 
decomposition, was used sparingly as a fertilizer on the 
land. An idea of its value today may be gained from 
the following table. 

A bale of cotton weighs about 500 pounds, about one- 
third of which is seed. From one ton of this seed, on an 
average, is derived the following: 

270 pounds or 36 gallons of oil at 28c per gallon $10.08 

750 pounds cotton seed meal at 90c per 100 pounds 6.75 

850 pounds hulls at 15c per 100 pounds 1.27 

30 pounds lint at 3^c 1.05 

Total value $19.15 

100 pounds waste and dirt. 

The oil when extracted from the seed is termed 
'^ crude oil." In refining this oil the loss varies from 7 
per cent to 12 per cent, on an average about 9i/4 pei" 
cent. With crude oil at 28 cents per gallon, figuring on 
91^4 per cent loss, refined oil would cost 301/4 cents per 
gallon. Refiners generally figure on about 2 cents per 
gallon for refining oil, this covering labor and shrinkage. 

The crude oil is often purchased by lard refiners and 
refined into what is known as '^ yellow oil." In this 
process it is put into a large tank (it is generally consid- 
ered profitable to refine cotton seed oil only in large 
quantities), this tank being supplied with a revolving 
agitator, so as to give the contents a thorough mixing. 
Into the tank is put a solution of 18 to 20 per cent of 
caustic soda. The quantity and strength of the solution 
necessary is determined by treating a small sample. To 
a small sample of oil add the soda, stirring continuously, 
having the whole solution heated up to a temperature of 
160° to 180° F. When sufficient Ive has been stirred in, a 



LARD AND GREASE 421 

precipitation will be noticed, carrying with it all the sedi- 
ment and other impurities. The sediment is known to 
the trade as "foots." 

An excessive amount of lye will saponify its equiva- 
lent in good oil, therefore care must be exercised to see 
that only the proper amount is used. After a thorough 
agitation to insure the thorough mixing of the caustic 
soda and the oil has been accomplished, the tank should 
be allowed to settle, when all the sediment and impuri- 
ties will go to the bottom of the vat. A few shovelfuls 
of fullers earth, amounting to less than one-quarter of 
one per cent is added and the oil is then pumped through 
a filtering press and is known to the trade as ^' yellow 
oil" 

The '^ foots," after the oil has been removed, is 
drawn off and pumped into soap kettles and treated with 
an additional amount of lye, boiled two or three hours, 
settled with fine salt and after washing the ingredients 
Avitli water, the latter is drawn off at the bottom. This 
treatment is duplicated as many times as necessary, un- 
til the soap stock will separate from impurities. When 
thoroughly settled draw the saap stock into packages for 
the soap trade. The finished '' foots " contains about 33 
to 40 per cent of moisture and a small percentage of lye. 

DEODOKIZING COTTON SEED OIL. 

\ 

This is a process of comparatively recent develop- 
ment and consists, first, in placing the oil in a jacketed 
kettle equipped with a large number of spiral coils. 
The oil is then subjected to a temperature of from 
320° to 360° F. After being held at this temperature 
for an hour to an hour and a half, it is ready for the 
washing process. This is done by means of a 2-inch per- 
forated pipe at the top of the kettle, through' which is 



422 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

sprinkled cold water on this body of oil. Tlie extreme 
temperature evaporates the water very rapidly and at 
the same time causes a precipitation. The water should 
be allowed to run for five minutes, and then the body of 
oil should be let stand for from one to two hours. The 
cone, or bottom of the kettle, will be found to carry much 
sediment which has been precipitated from the oil by the 
lowering of the temperature. This " bottom " should 
be drawn off, and the steam again turned on the coils. 

When the oil is brought up to as high a temperature 
as possible a 2-inch live steam pipe should be opened into 
the oil, the object being to deodorize the material. The 
extreme heat of the oil evaporates and throws off this 
steam very rapidly, the steam carrying with it the cotton 
seed flavor. 

Another method, often used with good results in de- 
odorizing cotton seed oil, is, when the oil has been 
brought to the maximum temperature, to admit a %- 
inch pipe of cold water at the bottom of the deodorizer, 
allowing it to run from two to five minutes. The extreme 
heat of the oil rapidly evaporates the water and the steam 
thus generated carries off a great deal of the objection- 
able flavor of the cotton seed oil. 

The length of time required for treating the oil de- 
pends largely upon its nature, some oils being more neu- 
tral and more nearly odorless than others, consequently 
no exact rule can be laid down that would flt all cases ; it 
must be left to the judgment of the person handling the 
oiJ. 

It is necessary in order to get the temperature above 
mentioned to have a boiler in which can be carried at 
least 135 pounds of steam. Consequently the kettle, coils, 
etc., should be made extra heavy and strong. The top of 
the kettle must also be hooded as the oil boils violently 



LARD AND GREASE 



423 



2 'DPI PAT 
LOWEST POINT 




%PIPETAPPED 
IN BOTTOM CONx 
NECTI0N5 3/coCKS-pORD.AlN 
ING OUT THE l'4" 
COILS 



FIG. 144.— DEODORIZIXG TANK FOR COTTON SEED OILS. 



424 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



and the steam must be given free opportunity to escape 
through the escape pipe, which should be at least 16 to 20 
inches in diameter in a tank 6 or 7 feet in diameter. The 
escape pipe should be provided with a goose neck, so that 
the steam, as it comes from the oil and condenses, does 
not drip back into the tank, otherwise the process would 
practically be continuous. Figs. 144, 145 and 146 illus- 
trate such a tank and coils for deodorizing cotton seed 




FIG. 145.— SECTION OF BOTTOM OF DEODORIZING TANK. 

oil, also show exhaust bonnet, which should be used 
when the exhaust pipe extends into the atmosphere a 
short distance above the deodorizing tanks. On account 
of the extreme agitation caused b}^ the heat, the oil is 
likely to boil over and waste. Special attention is called 
to the crook or neck in the exhaust pipe with 2-inch out- 
let at the lowest point. This is done so that the con- 
densation of the exhaust will not run back into the oil 
but will be taken out at this point. A small catch basin 



LARD AND GREASE 



425 




HINGE 4 HASP 



PIG. 14G.— SECTION THROUGH EXHAUST HOOD OF DEODORIZING TANK. 



426 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



or receptacle should be set under this in order to save 
any oil which may come over into the neck from the con- 
densed steam. 

As soon as the oil is deodorized it is drawn off and 
allowed to cool. It is then ready to be pum^Ded into the 
treating kettle, or what is known in refineries as the 
' ' dirt ' ' kettle. There it is brought up to a temperature 
of 160° F., when the fullers earth is added, generally using 
from 1 to 2 per cent of earth with this bleach, following 
an agitation of about ten minutes. It should then be 



'J 



jimmmmui 




FIG. 147.— FILTER PRESS FOR LARD OR GLEG GIL. 



pumped through the filter press into the receiving tank, 
where it is held until used. After going through this 
process the oil is known to the trade as " water white." 

CARE OF FTLTEE PEESS. 

The filter press (Fig. 147) should not be used more 
than two or three times until it is taken apart, all the 
sediment and dirt removed and clean cloths substituted. 
Continued use of filter cloths, without proper cleaning, 
has a deteriorating effect upon the material pumped 
through the presses, and different kinds of products 



LARD AND GREASE 427 

should never be pumped through the same press without 
cleaning same every time. 

KETTLE EENDERED LAED. 

In actual practice, probably not to exceed 10 per cent 
of the lard produced today is kettle rendered, the bal- 
ance is all sold under the head of " Refined," ''Com- 
pound, ' ' etc. Kettle rendered lard is the purest and best 
lard that is turned out in packing houses and consists of 
leaf lard and back fat, the proportions varying accord- 
ing to the value of the raw product, usually on a basis of 
about 60 per cent back fat and 40 per cent leaf. Lard 
handled in this manner has a sweet, wholesome odor and 
flavor, the same as the old-fashioned kettle rendered lard. 
It would seem as though the drift of the art of lard mak- 
ing has been in the wrong direction when only 10 per 
cent of the output of the lard produced is of this class, 
while the balance is of the refined. But the refined lard, 
while it is equally as wholesome, is sold cheaper to the 
consumers than is the kettle rendered. 

MANUFACTURE OF KETTLE RENDERED LARD. 

Kettle rendered lard is handled on much the same 
lines as oleo fats, it being first put through a hasher 
which thoroughly mangles and disintegrates all the fat 
tissues, so that when the heat is applied the oil readily 
separates. (See Figs. 54, 55 and 56 for kind of hasher 
and style of kettles.) The kettle generally used for this 
purpose is about 5 feet in diameter and from 5 to 7 feet 
deep, made of wrought iron, jacketed for steam, with an 
agitator to keep the product agitated while cooking. 

Upon starting to hash, ten pounds of bicarbonate of 
soda should be added to a kettle holding 5,000 pounds of 
material. This is used to cut the slime, blood and gela- 
tine, and also as a bleach. The pressure should be kept 
on the kettle until through hashing, then increased until 



428 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

the temperature reaches 255° to 260° F., when the pres- 
sure should be immediately shut off for one and one-half 
hours at least — one and one-half hours should be taken to 
reach this period. If oleo or lard stearine is used it 
should be added at this time, using about 15 per cent for 
the summer formula. After this period of shut-off, again 
turn on the steam, holding at about this temperature, al- 
lowing the contents to cook until dry, or until no further 
steam arises, which will consume probably from thirty 
to forty-five minutes from the time steam is shut off. 
Stop agitating and add twenty pounds of salt, let stand 
to settle one hour, then lower into the kettle below and 
strain through a cloth sieve, the lard being taken off the 
scrap at this point with a siphon. The scrap will remain 
in the bottom of the cooking kettle, for if it is siphoned 
off carefully, very little will pass through the pipe. The 
lard, when being drawn into the kettle below, should 
be passed through one or two thicknesses of cheese cloth 
in order to catch any small pieces of scrap or tissue which 
may find their way through. 

After the lard is all drawn from the cooking kettle, 
the scrap should be drawn from the bottom, through a 
pipe for that purpose, into a receptacle below. This 
scrap is generally used in the prime steam lard tank. If, 
however, lard is being rendered where there is no other 
provision for handling the scrap, it should be put into a 
hoop press (Fig. 75) and pressure applied, thereby liber- 
ating all the oil left in the residue, the scrap then being 
used as ^' pressed scrap." 

After the lard is lowered into the settling kettle 
and allowed to stand two to three hours, it should be 
siphoned off to a third kettle, as considerable scrap will 
have gone through into the lard from the cooking kettle, 
and should be strained through a double thickness of 



LARD AND GREASE 429 

dieese cloth, stretched tightly over a frame. After it has 
been drawn off to the third kettle a scum will arise on it, 
which should be immediately skimmed off, and about ten 
pounds of fine salt added to a 5,000-pound batch, to aid 
in settling. If convenient, it is advisable to allow the 
lard to settle in this kettle for twelve hours before draw- 
ing it off, although this length of time is not necessary, 
but a perfect settlement of the impurities is necessary to 
make the best lard. After it is thoroughly settled it 
should be drawn off into a cooler, ranging from 35° to 
40° F. 

When drawn into wooden packages, such as ten, 
twenty or fifty pound pails, lard should be drawn at 150° 
F. If drawn into tins it should be drawn off at 175° to 
180° F. ; when drawn into tierces, barrels or half barrels it 
should be drawn at about 130° F. When drawing lard 
into wooden packages these should always be silicated 
the day before, giving them ample time to dry, as this 
not only prevents the packages from soaking up the lard, 
but it also prevents excessive shrinkage of the package 
on account of the heat. ■ 

For kettle rendered lard it is, very desirable that there 
should be a light, fluffy top. This is only possible when 
the lard is drawn hot in a cool room ; in chilling the lard 
so rapidly the heat rising from the body of the lard in 
the jjackage causes this appearance at the top, which is 
always looked upon by the trade as a mark of excellence. 
When the lard is drawn off into small packages they are 
tiered up, one on top of the other, simply covering the top 
of the package with paper. The cover should not be put 
on the lard until it is chilled, for if it is put on while the 
lard is still hot, the fluffy appearance is entirely lost. 

Lard is generally sold in three, five, ten, twenty, forty 
and fifty-pound tins, the packages being sold gross 



430 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



weight. In wooden packages tare is deducted. The fol- 
lowing data will show the actual weight of the different 
packages which are usually made from an X L grade of 
tin. Inasmuch as lard sells at more per pound than the 
tin costs, there is always an endeavor to get the pack- 
ages as heavy as consistent. 

WEIGHT OF LAKD PACKAGES. 



Weight packages 


Weight material 


Avg. weight 


3-POUND pails: 
100 pails 


43 lbs. 

5 " 

9 " 

6 " 


7oz. 
4 " 
7 " 
3 " 


6.95 oz. 


100 bails 


.84 " 


100 covers 


1.51 " 


100 summer covers 


.99 " 






Average weight each 




10.29 oz. 


5-POUND pails: 

100 pails 

100 bails 


58 lbs. 

5 " 
13 " 

8 " 


12 oz. 
15 " 

10 " 


9.40 oz. 
.95 " 


100 covers 


2.08 " 


100 summer covers 


1.38 " 






Average weight each 




13.81 oz. 


10-POUND pails: 
100 pails 


92 lbs. 

7 " 

19 " 

13 " 


14 oz. 

12 " 

5 " 

10 " 


14 86 oz. 


100 bails 


1.24 " 


100 covers 


3 09 " 


100 summer covers 


2.18 " 






Average weight each 




21.37 oz. 


20-pouND pails: 
100 pails 


144 lbs., 
10 " 
34 " 
22 " 


15 oz. 
9 " 

4 " 


23.19 oz. 


100 bails 


1.69 " 


100 covers 


5 44 " 


100 summer covers 


3.56 " 






Average weight each 




33.88 oz. 


40-POUND SQUARE CANS: 

100 cans 


268 lbs., 
2 " 


8oz. 
8 " 


42.96 oz. 


100 caps 


.40 " 






Average weight each 




43.36 oz. 


50-POUND ROUND CANS: 

100 cans 


270 lbs., 
50 " 
38 " 


10 oz. 

2 " 
12 " 


43.30 oz. 


100 covers 


8.02 " 


100 summer covers 


6.20 " 






Average weight each 




57.52 oz. 




■ 





LARD AND GREASE 431 



DIMENSIONS OF LARD PACKAGES. 



3 lb. cans 5 in. high; top 4% in. and bottom 4 3/ 16 in. diam. 

" 1% " " Q% 

" 9% " " S% 

" 12M " " 11% 

by 4% in. square; 2% in. cap bole. 

" 93^ " " 2% " 



10 
30 
50 
5 
40 



" 9k' 

" 13 7/16 

square cans 73^ 
" 34M 



When lard is drawn into wooden packages it is not 
necessary to put it in as cold a storage as in the case of 
small tin packages ; the body of the lard being larger, the 
heat contained therein will give the tops a fluffy effect 
without extreme cold. A temperature of from 40° to 45° 
P. is ample for kettle rendered lard in wooden packages. 

While kettle rendered lard is usually sold under the 
label of ' '■ pure leaf lard, ' ' there is little or no actual leaf 
lard sold, as this particular part of the lard is worth 
more as a neutral lard than when made into kettle ren- 
dered. A very acceptable formula for kettle rendered 
iard, if handled properly, is as follows : 

70 per cent back fat; 

15 per cent leaf scraped lard, which is pieces of leaf, scraped 
out of the hog after the leaf lard has been pulled, and thor- 
oughly chilled. 

15 per cent lard stearine. When stearine is not available, 
5 to 7 per cent of oleo stearine may be used, with an addi- 
tional percentage of back' fat. 

Where neutral lard and kettle' rendered lard are made 
together a very nice flavor may be imparted to the kettle 
rendered lard by using the bottoms of neutral lard when 
cooking it, as the scrap from the neutral when brought 
to the high temperature of kettle rendereli lard imparts a 
rich leaf lard flavor. 

NEUTEAL LARD. 

When oleomargarine was first manufactured it was 
always considered necessary to use a percentage of nat- 
ural butter in order to give it the proper consistency, as 
the oleo oil was of too grainy and coarse a nature and 
sufficient natural butter was added to change that con- 



432 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

dition. But soon after some one conceived the idea of 
using neutral lard made from leaf lard in place of nat- 
ural butter in oleomargarine. When this was worked 
out successfully the term oleomargarine practically dis- 
appeared and the term " butterine " was substituted. In 
most of the butterine made today no natural butter is 
used, the body of the butterine being neutral lard. 

The same process, or conditions, that make oleo oil 
and tallow also make neutial lard and kettle rendered, 
namely, the difference in temperature in cooking. When 
leaf lard is cooked for kettle rendered purposes, if a tem- 
perature of from 250° to 260^ F. is obtained the tissues 
of the lard are burned or partially consumed, this heat 
giving it a flavor which is called ''high kettle rendered" 
flavor. When it is made into neutral this condition is 
reversed, the lard being melted at a temperature of from 
126° to 128° F. At this temperature no burning of tis- 
sues is possible, hence the oil extract is neutral in every 
sense of the word, both in color, flavor and smell. Having 
developed these three essential points the material read- 
ily forms the body for butterine by adding milk or cream 
and oleo oil and cotton seed oil, as desired. 

PKOCESS USED II«T MAKING NEUTRAL LARD. 

The first essential is to have the leaf lard thoroughly 
chilled, and quickly enough so that no part of it sours. If 
it is chilled too slowly a strong "hoggy" flavor is devel- 
oped which it is impossible to eradicate from the fresh 
product. The leaf lard should be chilled for twenty-four 
hours in a temperature of 34° to 36° F. before being 
melted. It is then put through a hasher which thorough- 
ly disintegrates it and from there to the melting kettles, 
which are made of very thin iron with a jacket. Often- 
times the melting kettle is but a wooden vat with a gal- 
vanized iron kettle inside, the space between the 



LARD AND GREASE 433 

wooden vat and the galvanized kettle being filled with 
water which is heated to the desired temperature for 
melting the product. It is not practicable to use steam 
in this case as the heat would be excessive and it would 
be impossible to control it. 

In a kettle holding 4,000 to 5,000 pounds steam should 
be turned on to the tank before any lard is permitted to 
go in, the agitator started to revolve slowly, not to ex- 
ceed six to eight revolutions per minute, and the heat 
should be regulated so as to have the lard all melted and 
ready to drop in one and one-half hours from the time of 
starting to hash. By the time the lard is thoroughly 
melted the temperature should be 126° to 128° F. As soon 
as it is melted it should be drawn off with a siphon into 
receiving kettles, which are also jacketed and held at 
practically the same temperature. The scrap is then 
drawn out at the bottom and the kettle is ready to be re- 
filled. 

As soon as the lard has dropped into the tank below 
it should be salted with 14 to 1 per cent of fine salt, let- 
ting it stand from fifteen to thirty minutes. Then all the 
liquid lard should be drawn off with a siphon, running it 
through a cheese cloth into the receiving tanks, where it 
should be allowed to settle for at least four hours. It is 
then drawn off into tierces through a pipe raised far 
enough from the bottom to leave IV2 to 2 inches of lard 
in the tank, care being taken that no " bottoms " get 
into the tierce, as these contain tissues which are, for the 
most part, undiscernible, and also what moisture may 
have been left in the lard. If either of these ingredients 
get into a tierce of neutral the result is that it, being only 
partially cooked and still more or less of a raw nature, 
immediately begins to decompose. It is a delicate article 
to handle and the settling of all impurities is es,sential. 



434 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

After the lard is drawn into tierces these should be 
left in a room, kept at a temperature of about 75° F. for 
about ten or fifteen hours, and then put into a cooler with 
a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. The tierces should 
always be filled from the sides and while the lard is lying 
in the first mentioned temperature, the bungs should be 
left out, permitting the heat to escape out of the tierce, 
carrying with it considerable flavor, and leaving the 
material more neutral than if bunged up as fast as 
chilled. The neutral, when drawn into tierces, should be 
drawn at a temperature of from 115° to 118° F. The 
following test shows the yield on chilled leaf lard, cooked 
in rendering tank, making prime steam lard : 

TSET ON CHILLED LEAF LARD TO DETERMINE VALUE AND YIELD. 

Warm leaf lard to cooler 1,000 lbs. 

Chilled leaf lard 986 lbs. 

Shrinkage, 1.4 per cent 14 lbs. 

Weight to test tank, 986 pounds; value per cwt., $7,556. 

Yield prime steam lard .94.12 per cent; 928 lbs. at $8,025 per cwt. $74.47 
Yield tankage (pres'd) .81 per cent; 8 lbs. at 9.89 per ton .04 

Total $74.51 

A second test shows a lot cooked under the same con- 
ditions, although the yield varies. 

TEST ON WARM LEAF LARD TO DETERMINE VALUE AND YIELD. 

Weight to test tank, 1,000 pounds; value per cwt., $6,981. 

Yield prime steam lard. .92.40 per cent; 924 lbs. at $7.55 per cwt. $69.76 
Yield tankage (pressed). 1.10 per cent; 11 lbs. at 9.23 per ton .05 

Total $69.81 

In the tables below is given a test on raw leaf lard 
rendered into neutral, showing yield and percentage of 
the neutral lard produced, the scrap and bottoms from 
the kettle being run into kettle rendered lard. Also com- 
parative test of cooking leaf lard under forty pounds 
pressure for six and one-half hours to determine the pro- 



LARD AND GREASE 435 

duction of prime steam lard obtainable, also for com- 
parison with raw leaf lard run as neutral : 

TEST OX LEAF LARD RENDERED INTO NETjTRAL. 

Raw leaves 8,958 pounds at ^O.OSVs per pound=$727.84 

Salt for settling. 35 " " 4.90 " ton — .09 

$727.93 



Production: 

Neutral lard 7,880 pounds at $0.09125 per pound=$718.96 

Neutral bottoms.. 1,055 

(Run under forty 
pounds pressure two 
and one-half hours.) 

Prime Steam lard . 497 " "$0,082 " " =$40.75 

Tankage 56 " " 18.00 " ton = .45 

$760.16 

Gain on production $ 32.23 

Gain per 100 pounds on raw weight, $0,036. 

Percentage Production : 

Neutral lard to raw weight 87.97 

Neutral bottoms to raw weight 11.78 

Prime steam lard to raw weight 5.55 

Tankage to raw weight , 63 

Prime steam lard to weight of bottoms 47.11 

Tankage to weight of bottoms 5.31 

Total production of lards , 93.52 

Total production of raw weights 94.15 

Tanking Leaf Lard: 

Raw leaves 1,000 pounds at $ 0.08125 per pound=$81.25 

Prime steam lard 929 " " 0.0825 " " =76.18 

Tankage 5 " " 18.00 " ton 



Loss on production ^ $ 5.07 

Loss per pound on raw weight 0051 

Prime steam lard to raw weight, per cent, 92.9. 
NO. 3 NEUTRAL LAED. 

This is a neutral lard made from back fat. At times 
it is very profitable to make this produd; into No. 2 neu- 
tral instead of into prime steam lard, for when the 
market for No. 1 neutral is extremely high there is de- 
mand for a good No. 2. When making this, the rind 
should be all skinned off from the back fat, leaving just 
the clear back fat to be hashed for neutral. If the rinds 
are put in, it gives the product a ' ' hoggy ' ' flavor, which 
makes it unsalable as neutral lard. It is hashed and 
melted practically the same as No. 1 neutral, except as 



436 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

to temperature, the melting point for this being 132° to 
134° F., the same method and apparatus as described 
for the making of No. 1 neutral, being applicable to this. 
In making a No. 2 neutral, the bottoms, after the neu- 
tral has been drawn off, can be converted into a kettle 
rendered lard, if there is a demand for this product, and 
make a very desirable article. The following test on 
5,000 pounds of back fat converted into No. 2 neutral and 
prime steam lard shows accurately the yield of each. 

TEST ON 5,000 POUNDS OF BACK FAT CONVERTED TO NO. 2 NEUTRAL KETTLE 
RENDERED LARD AND PRIME STEAM LARD. 

Net wt. lbs. Per cent. 

Back fat 5,000 

Less skins removed 586=11.72 

Skinned back fat rendered to No. 2 neutral. . .4,414 

Production No. 2 neutral 1,846=41.82 

Bottoms left in kettle 2,568 

Bottoms from No. 2 neutral rendered to kettle 

rendered lard 2,568 

Stearine added 270=10.51 

Total 2,838 

Production of kettle rendered lard from above. .. .1,940=68.36 

Bottoms from No. 2 neutrals 898 

Kettle rendered bottoms 673 

Loss on production 225 

Bottoms from kettle rendered to prime steam lard 

to tank 673 

Production of prime steam lard 307=45.62 

Skins from back fat rendered to prime steam lard. 586 
Production of prime steam lard 192=32.76 

RECAPITULATION : 

Net wt. lbs. 

Rendering back fat 5,000 

Oleo stearine added 270 

Total 5,270 

Production No. 2 neutral lard 1,846 pounds 

Production kettle rendered lard 1,940 " 

Production prime steam lard 499 " 4,285 

Waste 985 



LARD AND GREASE 4B7 

GREASE. 

In the rendering of lard and tallow there is always a 
certain amount of grease produced, but the amount should 
be kept down to a minimum. There are always catch 
basin skimmings and parts of the rendered fats which 
have become contaminated, rendering them unfit for 
edible purposes. These greases are used for pressing 
purposes where different grades of oil and stearine are 
made and are also used for the manufacture of soaps. 
There is at times a very handsome profit in pressing 
greases and extracting the oil from them, which is used 
for various purposes. At times there is a good demand 
for tallow and lard oils, although at best the demand is 
limited. 

The product to be pressed is drawn off into seeding 
trucks, in a similar manner to oleo oil, and there allowed 
to stand until partially chilled, when it is put in cloths 
in the presses and the oil gradually squeezed out, 
leaving the stearine in the cloth. The demand for 
this kind of oil has been greatly curtailed in the last few 
years because of the varieties of oil it has been found 
possible to make from petroleum. More or less of grease 
goes into the catch basin, where it becomes contaminated 
with foreign matter, rendering it in the case of lard, 
yellow grease, an unedible product, and in the case of 
tallow, black grease. This kind of product is generally 
pressed; the oil extracted from yellow grease, or grease 
made from hog product, is used for lubricating, as well 
as lighting purposes-, there being quite a good demand 
for same. The oil made from tallow product or black 
grease is also used for lubricating purposes and enters 
into the manufacture of many articles not edible. The 
stearine from these different greases is generally 
used in the making of soaps or candles, glycerine 



438 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

is extracted therefrom, and various other products. 
Before the pressing of low grade greases is possible, 
it is necessary to wash the fats with sulphuric acid 
to eliminate the impurities, such as water, lime soaps, 
albuminous matters and ordinary dirt. Shallow wooden 
vats are ordinarily used for this purpose, the vats being 
of greater width than depth, as the acid water settles 
best in a shallow receptacle. Where a comparatively 
small amount of work is to be done an ordinary wooden 
vat made out of good sound pine, with 3-inch staves and 
well bolted together, is all that is necessary, but where 
the work is continuous these wooden vats should be lined 
with ten-ounce lead, as the acid very soon destroys the 
vats. 

The method of washing with the sulphuric acid is as 
follows: Into the wooden or lead-lined vat run clear 
water to the amount of about 10 to 15 per cent of the 
weight of the grease to be treated, and when the water is 
in, add 1 per cent of sulphuric acid to the fat to be 
washed, the acid to be 66-degree density. It is important 
that the water be put in first, for if the acid is put into 
the tank first and the water afterwards run in, an explo- 
sion is liable to occur on account of the intense heat gener- 
ated by the absorption of the water by the acid. In case 
of an explosion the acid is liable to be thrown on the at- 
tendants. After the water and acid has been mixed, add 
the liquid fat, turn on steam and boil until the fat and acid 
show clear ; at first it will be muddy or cloudy. Usually a 
boiling of twenty to thirty minutes is sufficient. This work 
should be done on the top floor of the building, or some 
place where there is ample room for the escape of the 
vapor, as the fumes of the acid are very strong and 
are injurious to the building. After the boiling is 
finished, allow the tank to settle ten to twelve hours, then 



LARD AND GREASE 439 

draw off the acid water from tlie bottom, and if the same 
is clear and clean it shows that the fat had little foreign 
substance and the solution can be used over again. If 
it shows a great deal of foreign matter in the solution it 
should be run away. 

All pipes leading from such treating vats should bo 
of lead. It is also necessary that the pipes in the vats 
be of perforated lead coils, as iron pipes would very 
soon be destroyed. After the fats have been washed they 
should be drawn into trucks or tierces and placed in a 
]'oom where there is good ventilation, and kept there for 
about two days, giving the acid fumes an opportunity to 
pass off; the fat will then be found to be lowered to 
about 80° F., and should then be removed to a room that 
is refrigerated to the degree required by each special 
class of product to be pressed. The temperatures neces- 
sary for the diff'erent greases are as follows: 

Tallow 58° to 65° F. 

Prime steam lard 48° to 50° F. 

Neatsfoot oil 45° to 48° F. 

After remaining in these temperatures three or four 
days the fats will be found to be crystallized, or grained, 
and of about the temperature of the rooms. It is then 
ready to go to press. The temperatures of the press 
rooms should be — 

Yellow grease 63° to 65° F. 

Prime steam lard ) . . . 53 ° to 58 ° F. 

Pure neatsfoot 50° to 53° F. 

As a rule it is generally found advisable to have the 
press room a few degrees warmer than the stock, as it 
facilitates the draining of the oils from the stearines. 

COLD TESTS ON GKEASE. 

It is not customary to speak of any particular cold 
test of cotton or grease oils; however, in case of pure 



440 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

lard oil, pressed, as before mentioned, it would have a 
cold test of about 42° F. Pure neatsfoot would have a 
cold test of about 45° F. In case colder degree oils are 
desired, either pure lard or neatsfoot, it would be neces- 
sary to make the lard colder than above; as to neatsfoot 
oil, if it is desired to make a 30° F. test, it would be best 
to make two pressings. First chill stock to a tempera- 
ture of 42° F., pressing it in a room at 45° F., and then 
take the oil that is made in this way, refrigerating it in 
a room at 32° F. and pressing it at a temperature of 32° F. 
The same is true of lard oil. If it is desired to make a 
very low test of lard oil it is necessary to press it twice. 

There are several forms of presses made for this 
work, but the ones generally in use are the lever and 
weight presses ; they are more economical to install and 
also to operate. Another factor in favor of the lever 
press is that a much thinner cloth can be used than in a 
power press, and the amount of oil which is absorbed by 
press cloths is a large item in the pressing of fats. This 
is greatly reduced by using a lighter grade of cloth. One 
of the great advantages to be obtained in washing low 
grade fats is apparent in the stearine ; when the stearine 
is shaken out from the cloth it is found to be free from 
impurities, also free from water. These stearines are 
generally put into melting kettles where they are heated 
to a liquid form and drawn directly into the packages. 
The oils from the pressings should be filtered after com- 
ing from the presses. 

The amount of fullers eartli to be used in filtering de- 
pends upon the condition of the oil to be filtered. With 
prime steam lard no fullers earth should be used; it is 
simi^ly filtered through clean press cloths. In the case 
of lard oils and tallow oils, the color of the oil desired 
must also determine the amount of fullers earth to be 



LARD AND GREASE 441 

used, no set rule as to the amount to be used in every case 
being practicable. 

No. 1 lard oil and No. 2 neatsfoot oil are generally 
made from the same kind of stock, the grading being 
made according to the color. A lot that is particularly 
dark would be graded as No, 2 neatsfoot. A No. 2 lard 
oil would be practically the same stock bleached with 4 
to 6 per cent of fullers earth. Every manufacturer of 
these different grades of oils has his own grades and 
standards established, to which the lard refiners usually 
work, and the amount of bleaching, etc., which is neces- 
sary for each individual lot should be governed by the 
knowledge of the operator, rather than by any set rules. 

In the pressing of these articles the oils generally 
run from 40 to 52 per cent of stock, the balance being 
stearine, the percentage of oil obtained varying accord- 
ing to the temperature at which it is pressed, and accord- 
ing to the relative market prices for oils and stearines. 



442 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XX. 
BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER. 

MANUFACTURE OF BUTTEEINE. 

Butterine is a product possessing great value as food 
and puts within the reach of the masses an article which 
is wholesome and palatable and at the same time of mod- 
erate price. However, national, as well as state, legisla- 
tion has done a great deal to curtail and cramp its sale, 
as it was found to be a severe competitor of the dairy- 
man and farmer. The restrictions at present in force 
are of such a nature as to limit the volume of business 
done, but as the consumption is increasing in spite of the 
restrictions, this business will undoubtedly again assume 
in the near future its former proportions. 

Practically all the oleo oil made in this country is 
shipped to Europe, where it is used in the manufacture 
of butterine, and there consumed; for with the com- 
paratively dense population of European countries they 
are unable to supply themselves with pure dairy butter. 

While prejudice exists in many places against butter- 
ine, it is wholesome in every respect, handled, as it is 
from necessity, in a most approved and cleanly manner, 
for if it is not made with absolute cleanliness, and the 
milk used becomes in the least tainted or impregnated 
from any cause, the whole mass is injured. This is seem- 
ingly true to a greater extent than it is in the manufact- 
ure of pure butter, as the different ingredients used in 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



443 




444 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



butterine, being more or less foreign to each other, propa- 
gate germs more readily than any one of the various in- 
gredients would separately. 

Very marked advances have been made in the manu- 
facture of this article within the past few 3''ears. A much 
more desirable product has been made since the advent 
of neutral lard, which is now used instead of natural but- 
ter ; it is, however, necessary to use milk or cream to give 
the goods the natural flavor of butter. It is in the han- 




OLFO - 

rnrro/v ,?£CD - 



71 1L. Sr£/^M.Wt} TfOOM 



> 6 O- 



Burrc/f G/Pcm^ 



FIG. 149.— SECOND FLOOR PLAN OF MODERN BUTTERINE FACTORY. 



dling of these latter ingredients that the difficult part of 
the manufacture of butterine presents itself. 

Fig. 148 shows plan af modern butterine factory, 
location of vats and machinery, together with ground 
floor of refrigerator, shipping room, etc. The lower 
half of the diagram represents a longitudinal section, 
while Fig. 149 presents a plan of the second floor of the 
manufacturing department of a modern butterine making 
plant. 

HANDLING OF THE MILK IN MAKING BUTTERINE. 

The principal, and by all odds, the most important 
matter to be considered in the manufacture of butterine, 
is the quality and proper handling of the milk and cream. 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



445 



If tlie milk or the cream is of poor quality, the entire 
product will be spoiled. Milk was formerly handled by 
souring before churning. When received it was put in a 
tin receptacle, which in turn was set in a wooden box 
which contained warm water, the milk being held at a 
temperature of 78° F., and the temperature of the room 




FIG. 150.— BOYD CREAM RIPENER. 



from 86° to 90° F. The milk was then allowed to 
remain in the souring vats about fifteen hours before 
using. The proper condition for use being reached when 
there is a strong acid taste to the milk, which is devel- 
oped when it is sufficiently sour. 

Fig. 150 illustrates a cream ripener which is so con- 
nected that either water, cold brine or steam can be used 



446 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



through a center agitator, thereby insuring absolute con- 
trol of the temperature of the cream or milk. 

At this point the cream and milk are thoroughly 
mixed and the mixture is then drained off into a churn. 
(See Fig. 151.) It is next agitated until the butter is 
practically all separated from the buttermilk. At this 
juncture about one-quarter of the required amount of 
neutral lard is mixed in, still keeping the churn in action. 
When it is thoroughly mixed it is ready to be put into 
the mixer with the proper amounts of oleo oil, neutral 
lard and cotton seed oil in the proportion of each to be 
used, according to the grade desired. 




FIG. 151.— CHURN USED IN BUTTERINE FACTORY. 

After the different ingredients have been thoroughly 
agitated in the mixer, the proper or desired coloring 
matter is added, an article manufactured especially for 
this purpose. The principal manufacturers are Wells, 
Richardson & Co., Burlington, Vermont, and Heller, Herz 
& Co., New York City, the latter of whom manufacture 
what is known as the " Alderney Butter Color." From 
four to forty ounces to a batch of 100 pounds, according 
to the color and shade required, should be used. After 
the coloring matter is added the mixer should be run 
about twenty minutes, after which the contents are ready 
for the graining vats. 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 447 

In regard to the coloring, the reader will understand 
that this is the particular point upon which federal re- 
strictions have been placed, and the goods today cannot 
be colored except upon payment of a prohibitory tax 
amounting to ten cents per pound. On uncolored goods 
the tax is one-quarter cent per pound. While the goods 
are equally as wholesome uncolored as colored, they are 
not as attractive in appearance and sales are propor- 
tionately curtailed. 

Butterine is made in two grades, viz., a " high " and 
a '' low " grade. High grade butterine is that which 
contains no cotton seed oil and in which cream is used in 
the place of milk. Low grades contain cotton seed oil 
and milk is used instead of cream. Different qualities 
and grades are merely subdivisions of these two, ob- 
tained by deducting from and adding to the quantities of 
these various ingredients. 

As before stated, cleanliness is the all-important fac- 
tor, since milk as a food product is most easily contam- 
inated by foreign flavors and germ life. Milk readily 
absorbs the odors given off by articles placed in the same 
room. Therefore, only pure and absolutely sweet milk 
and cream should be used, but as absolutely pure milk, 
though sweet, is difficult to secure, it becomes necessary 
to adopt some method whereby the condition of such milk 
can be righted. * 

Careless milkers care little whether hair, dirt, dust, 
etc., drop into the pails while milking, thinking that in 
straining the milk, all particles and impurities are re- 
moved. It does remove all particles, but the filth germs 
which were clinging to these particles by the million are 
not strained out. They remain in the milk and under 
favorable temperatures thrive and multiply unless ar- 
rested by some purifying agent. Hence a ''pure flavor 



448 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

germ " is cultivated in the form of a commercial 
' ' starter. ' ' 

Before giving the details as to the working of the 
' ' starter, ' ' let us first consider the methods adopted for 
receiving the milk, and also making the proper tests in 
order to determine its value and the amount of fat it 
contains. This test is made as follows, and it is very 
essential that this be done carefully and. intelligently, as 
the result of the test determines the value of the product 
purchased. 

The test generally accepted by experts is obtained by 
using Babcock's " Acme " steam turbine test machine. 
This machine is made to accommodate twenty-four bot- 
tles at one time. Care should be taken to have the ma- 
chine set up well and secured and balanced exactly each 
time test is made. This is accomplished by placing bot- 
tles exactly opposite each other. For instance should a 
test be desired on only one sample of milk, fill up another 
bottle with water and place in machine opposite sample. 
The machine in motion makes 3,000 revolutions per 
minute. It will, therefore, be seen at once that a perfect 
equilibrium is necessary. Test bottles are so arranged 
that they will contain the amount of milk or cream and 
acid needed. A 17.6 cc. pipette is used for measuring 
the milk or cream and a 17.6 cc. graduated tube for the 
acid. First pour 17.6 cc. milk in bottle, then pour in 17.6 
cc. commercial grade sulphuric acid. Do not pour the 
acid so that it drops on top of the milk, but hold the bot- 
tle sidewise so that the acid will slip into the milk at side. 
Otherwise a burnt taste will result and make it impossible 
to correctly read the test. Shake the bottle well until milk 
has entirely disappeared, then place in machine. 

After all bottles are filled in this manner and machine 
is balanced, admit steam, gradually increasing it, until 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 449 

machine is running at full speed. Allow it to run five 
minutes, then stop and fill each bottle with hot water up 
to the lowest mark on graduated neck of bottle ; start ma- 
chine again and allow it to run for three minutes, when 
again it will be necessary to add hot water up to within 
one-half inch of top of neck of bottle. Then run machine 
two minutes longer, and read test. Use a pair of com- 
passes in reading the fat in neck of bottle and read it 
quickly as the fat recedes if left long. This test de- 
termines the percentage of fat in sample of milk, conse- 
cmently its value. 

MILK AND CEEA.M FOE BUTTEEHSTE. 

Only sweet milk should be used. Milk that is sour be- 
fore reaching the factory has invariably soured under 
conditions which cause trouble impossible to remedy, and 
no matter how good the ' ' starter ' ' may be that is added 
to the milk, it has developed germs and bacteria that 
cannot be destroyed, and as the milk or cream grows 
older the development of the proper germs or bacteria is 
over rapid and impossible to control. This is as true 
after it has been worked into the butterine as before. 
Hence it will be seen, that a great deal depends upon the 
milk and cream being absolutely sweet in developing the 
proper conditions with the " starter." 

The exact " sourness " or acidity of the milk can be 
determined by taste or smell, but not accurately. Hence 
a test is necessary to determine the exact conditions of 
the milk when x)urcliased, as well as when treated for the 
butterine. 

Experience has shown that when milk contains six- 
tenths of one per cent acid, the most desirable point has 
been reached, as then it imparts the best flavor to the 
goods. If more than six-tenths of one per cent, acid is 



450 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

used the flavor is not as good. This is also the case if a 
lower percentage of acidity is used. Hence the milk or 
cream should be brought to this exact degree of sourness 
before using. 

In order to determine this accurately, it is necessary 
to do it by a test, as milk may be three-tenths of one per 
cent acid before it is perceptible to the taste or smell. 
Milk that would pass as sweet by taste or smell will show 
two-tenths of one per cent acid. 

The test to determine this is very simple. Any chem- 
ist is able to furnish an alkali solution and the necessary 
neutral] zer of proper strength. The usual way, how- 
ever, is to use what is known as Farrington's tablets, 
prepared by Prof. Farrington of the Wisconsin Dairy 
School. These tablets are dissolved in water, a conven- 
ient strength being five tablets to fifty cubic centimeters 
of water. The solution is mixed with the milk to be 
tested and shaken; the acid in the milk acting upon the 
alkali of the solution immediately turns the milk to a pink 
color and the amount of the solution required to produce 
the pink color determines the acidity of the milk. 

A 20 cc. pipette is used for measuring the milk 
or cream. Each cubic centimeter of solution is equal to 
two one-hundredths of one per cent acid, hence if 10 ec. 
of solution is necessary to turn the milk or cream a pink 
color, the milk would contain just two-tenths of one per 
cent acid and would be sweet. Any more than that would 
show the milk to be too sour for use. In receiving even 
sweet milk, it must be taken for granted that it is dirty 
and contains some impure bacteria, which only await the 
proper temperature to develop and thereby sour the milk 
and produce bad flavors. This is why the " starter " 
should be used on all milk and cream that is to be utilized 
in butterine. 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 451 

Another great advantage obtained in the use of the 
* ' starter ' ' is the fact, that it permits the ripening of milk 
and cream at a lower temperature. Bacteriologists state, 
and it is proved by experience, that a temperature of 
about 65 °F. is most favorable to the development of the 
best fermentation in ripening milk and cream. This is 
another very valuable point to be considered in the use of 
'' starters." Prior to their discovery it was customary 
to sour the milk at a much higher temperature, which 
was correspondingly favorable to all the objectionable 
bacteria in the milk. Without the use of the '' starter " 
the conditions were practically beyond the control of the 
operator. 

When the milk for use in butterine has been examined 
and accepted it. should be strained through a double 
thickness of clean cloth into the milk vats for ripening, 
bringing the temperature on the different vats to the 
same point, so that as the milk is used it will all be in 
the same condition. In cold weather the temperature 
should be held at 70° F.,, while during the warmer sea- 
sons from 60° to 65° F, is desirable. In cloudy, murky 
summer weather a lower temperature will be required. 
It is generally known that electrical disturbances have 
a very marked effect upon milk and ver}^ often a thunder 
storm will cause milk to sour. Under such conditions the 
temperature should be held at from 55V to 60° F. until 
the storm is passed, when it should again be held at the 
normal temperature named. 

The " starters " referred to contain nothing more 
than the healthy bacteria always found in clean, fresh 
milk cultivated in such vast numbers that when incor- 
porated with milk containing the impure variety, minia- 
ture warfare is at once begun. If the ' ' starter ' ' is right, 
the warfare ends with the pure germs victorious, bring- 



452 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

iiig the milk once more to its proper and original condi- 
tion. 

There are two ferments or " starters " on the mar- 
ket which are commendable on account of their uniform- 
ity and iDurity the year round. They are produced in 
eastern laboratories in what might be called vitalized air, 
every care being taken to see that no foreign flavor comes 
in contact with them. They are Keith's " Butric " and 
Hansen's ^' Lactic." The former is produced by Simon 
]veitli, of Boston, Mass. (this culture being in liquid form 
and coming in four ounce bottles) ; the latter by Christ 
Hansen, of Little Falls, New York, which comes in the 
same size iDackage, but in powder form. These are the 
leading manufacturers and both articles give highly sat- 
isfactory results. 

PEEPAKATOKY STARTEKS HOW PREPARED. 

Into a bright, tin vessel, put four gallons of sweet, 
skimmed milk, which tests two-tenths of one per cent 
acid, no more. Strain through a double thickness of per- 
fectly clean cloth, heat the milk to 180° F., holding at this 
temperature for one-half hour. This '' Pasteurizes " 
the milk by absolutely killing all life in it. It also de- 
stroys all flavor. 

The milk should then be cooled quickly to 90° F. As 
soon as this temperature has been reached pour in a 
four-ounce bottle of '' starter " or ferment, holding the 
bottle close to the milk so that no flavor or odor may 
contaminate it. The bottle should not be opened until 
ready for use. After adding the ferment cool down slow- 
ly to 70° F., stirring all the while so as to thoroughly 
mix it with the milk. The bacteria grow very rapidly 
at this temperature. In twelve hours, if kept evenly at 
this temperature in a tightly closed vessel, a sufficient 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 453 

quantity of the proper germs will liave been developed 
to produce an acidity of five-tentlis of one per cent. The 
milk will also have thickened somewhat. If the above 
conditions are found at the termination of twelve hours, 
cool the milk quickly to 40° F. and hold at this tempera- 
ture until ready to make a large or regular ' ' starter, ' ' 

If by careful test the milk has not grown sufficient 
germs to produce the above named acidity, that is, five- 
tenths of one per cent, reheat to 90° F. and hold at this 
temperature until it does. Do not stir it at this stage, 
as the " starter " should be kept with as little agitation 
as possible after the germs have been iDropagated. 

THE EEGULAE " STARTEE. " 

When ready to make the large or regular '^ starter," 
place twenty gallons of sweet, skimmed milk in a ster- 
ilizer, after having cleaned the vessel, and heat as be- 
fore to 180° F. ; hold at this temperature for one-half 
hour, then chill to 70° F. and add the four gallons of pre- 
paratory " starter " already described, stirring well 
while adding. 

Let this stand twelve hours as before in a tempera- 
ture of 70° F., when it should appear as the preparatory 
starter did, slightly thickened and showing an acidity of 
five-tenths of one per cent. When acidity test shows this 
to have been reached, chill to 40° F. ^(at this tempera- 
ture the bacteria are dormant and will not develop), and 
hold until ready to ripen the day's run of milk and cream 
for churning. 

Wlien the milk has been brought to the proper tem- 
perature distribute the larger ' ' starter ' ' evenly through 
it. Of the second '' starter " 3 per cent is sufficient 
during the summer months, while even as high as 10 
X)er cent is necessary in cold weather. Stir thoroughly 



454 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

and arrange vats so that they can be closed tightly while 
the milk is ripening, leaving only a small opening in the 
top for gases to escape as the acid develops. 

At the expiration of twelve hours, the milk should be 
ripened sufficiently for churning and by test it should 
show, as above stated, six-tenths of one per cent acid. 
When this acidity has been developed cool to 58° F. and 
place in churn. At this temperature the butter-fat will 
form in small, firm globules and separate nicely from 
the casein. If the temperature is lower than this it takes 
much longer to separate the fat from the casein and it 
is impossible to separate all of it, hence some fat is lost. 
At a higher temperature, the fat, when separated, will 
he fluffy and soft and will not produce a firm body. 

As texture is one of the essential points to be sought 
after in producing artificial butter, the churning of the 
milk, in order to produce the proper texture in the butter- 
fat, is a very important function and one which should 
be carefully performed. Before putting the milk into the 
churn it should be stirred thoroughly, as during the 
twelve hours occupied in ripening, the butter-fat, being 
the lightest, has come to the top and unless again thor- 
oughly mixed one churn will contain most of the fat and 
the others will contain comparatively little, and as each 
churning of milk going into the mixer constitutes a sep- 
arate run, the quality of the butterine manufactured will 
be uneven. The churn should turn about fifty revolu- 
tions per minute and about twenty minutes churning is 
necessary to separate all the fat. At the expiration of 
this time the milk or cream is ready for the mixer. 

LOW GEADE BUTTERINE. 

This grade is composed of cotton seed oil. No. 2 oleo 
oil and No. 2 neutral lard. Straight milk is used for 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



455 



flavor. The oils go into agitator at the following tem- 
peratures : Cotton seed oil at 75° F. ; neutral lard, added 
next, at 95° F., and oleo oil next at 90° F. 

The cotton seed oil should be agitated first for about 
fifteen to twenty minutes, before the other oils are added, 
leaving the lid of the agitator open. This has the effect 
of removing some of the flavor from the oil and while it 
may be slight, it is certainly an advantage. The neutral 




PIG. 152.— CHURN ROOM FOR BUTTERINE. 



lard should be added next, care being ta^^en to see that it 
is free from flakes and sandy texture. In other words, 
it should be brought to the proper temperature, viz., 95° 
F. and held there long enough before going to the agita- 
tor to be sure that the grain of the lard has entirely dis- 
appeared, for if this is allowed to go in it can never be 
removed in the finished product. 

The oleo oil is next added and after these three in- 
gredients have been agitated for twenty minutes and 



456 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

thoroughly mixed, the milk should be added last and the 
whole mass left in the agitator for five minutes with the 
lid of the agitator closed tightly. 

At this stage the salt and color are added. The amount 
of salt required should be decided by the necessities of 
the particular trade to be supplied, but 5 per cent will 
be found a medium salt. Experience has proved that it 
is better to add salt at this time because it is more evenly 
distributed in the emulsion than in the granular but- 
terine. 

After the color and salt are thoroughlj^ mixed, let 
the whole body run into the graining vat filled with water 
at a temperature of 40° F. This should be drawn through 
a 5-inch galvanized pipe flattened out at the end to 
form a spreading exit for the butterine. The butterine 
passes into the water vat directly behind a paddle wheel 
arranged so that one-half of it is above water. The wheel 
revolves rapidly causing the butterine to be quickly sub- 
merged, thereby graining it as fast as it hits the cold wa- 
ter. The quicker butterine is grained, the more flavor it 
retains, as the globules formed incase the flavor. Should 
the water be too cold, the butterine will be hard and dry, 
and is likely to crumble and mottle, besides causing a re- 
duction in gain. On the other hand, if the water is too 
warm the butterine will be soft and mushy and cannot 
be worked properly, although the gain will be larger. 
Warm water is used on very cheap grades when butter- 
ine is to be packed in solids and a large gain is desired. 

Butterine differs from creamery butter, in that the 
butter-fat and casein are both used in the butterine, 
whereas in creamery butter the fat alone is utilized. This 
is done in butterine to gain all the flavor possible by pass- 
ing the buttermilk through tire oils. It is later washed 
out in the water vats, but in passing through the oils, it 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



457 



imparts some flavor. Butterine also requires much less 
working, thereby avoiding a '^ salvey " or pasty condi- 
tion, also preventing a loss of moisture and increasing 
the yield of the article. Salt being the primary cause 
of the " mottle," or discoloration, that danger is also 
avoided when goods are not over-worked. 

Fig. 153 shows a butter-worker and receiving tray for 
entering worker. By revolving the worker with tray in 
this position the butterine is placed on the table. 




FIG. 153.— SIMPLEX BUTTER AYORKER. 



In figuring a formula for butterine, the titre must be 
carefully watched, because hard, crumbly butterine, .or 
the soft, mushy product is often traced to poor figuring 
in the formula. A simple formula that may be depended 
upon would be as follows : 

350 pounds of oleo oil at 90° F., 
250 pounds of cotton seed oil at 75° P., 
450 pounds of neutral lard at 95° P., , 

30 gallons of milk at 60° P. 



458 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



This, when mixed, will show a temperature of about 
90° F. as a whole. If not, heat to that point before draw- 
ing into the graining vat. As fast as the butterine to be 
grained shows on the top of the water, it should be lifted 
onto a cloth in the hands of two men to a clean box truck. 

The butterine should then be covered with a sprink- 
ling of fine salt and the trucks ]^laced in the tempering 
room, where a temperature of 60° F. should be main- 




FIG. 154.— MAKING BUTTERINE PRINTS. 



tained, to remain twelve hours. In this time, it will de- 
velop all the flavor it is possible to obtain and be ready 
for the workers. 

The temperature of the tempering room is something 
that must be watched carefully and should never be al- 
lowed to go above 60° F. as the ingredients in this condi- 
tion contain a large amount of water, and at a warmer 
temperature action of the water and grease are liable to 
cause the goods to sour. After remaining in this tempera- 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



459 



ture twelve hours the butterine is taken out to the work- 
ers. It should be worked as little as possible to obtain 
a smooth, compact body, as overworking produces a 
" salvey " condition. In packing the product is worked 
up into prints or rolls, or packed solid into tubs, as the 
case may be, and should be run into a cooler kept at a 
temperature of from 40° to 45° F., and there held twelve 
hours, at least, before being shipped. This gives the but- 
terine time to properly set. 




FIG. 155.— PRINT COOLER FOR BUTTERINE. 



HIGH GRADE BUTTEEINE. 

The formula for high grade butterine differs from low 
grade in that it does hot contain cotton seed oil and that 
cream is used instead of straight milk. The oils are also 
treated in a different manner and at different tempera- 
tures. Larger quantities of cream are used to improve 
the quality and grades. The treatment of the oils is the 
same in all high grades. 



460 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



The neutral oil should be placed in the agitator first. 
Before being put in, however, it should be brought to a 
temperature of 110° F., or enough to remove the flakes 
and grain. Then cooled quickly with clear ice, or by 
means of the refrigeration, to 95° F, and run into 
the agitator, in motion, with the lids open. Oleo oil 
should be heated just enough to remove the grain and 
make it smooth, about 115° F., then chilled quickly to 85° 




FIG. 156.— BUTTERINE SOLID PACKING ROOM. 



F. and run into the agitator. Let it be agitated five min- 
utes and then add the cream. 

The whole body is then agitated enough to insure 
mixture, ten minutes being sufficient, after which it is 
dropped into the graining vat, the temperature of the 
water being 36° F. It should be removed from the water 
into trucks at once and put into the tempering room at 
a temperature not over 60° F., tempered twelve hours and 
worked the same as low grades. 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



461 



Milk and cream undergo many changes after being 
incorporated in the finished bntterine and the more cream 
there is in the product the lower the temperature in the 
tempering room should be. It is not at this stage that 
flavor is made. Only the flavor the product already con- 
tains is developed and many batches of sour or " off " 
butterine are traced to too warm tempering rooms, where- 
by the butter fat and oil because of their mixture with 
water decompose and become rancid. 

Cleanliness of all utensils is very important and live 
steam should be run through all pipes after each time 
they are used so that there is no possibility of any fats or 
grease adhering to the inside and becoming rancid, as it 
is carelessness of this kind that often causes a large 
amount of trouble in a butterine factory. 



FORMULAS FOR MAKI]^G BUTTERHSTE. 

The following formulas show the amount of different 
ingredients used and cost of finished product at time tests 
were made. The first is a formula for high grade, then 
a formula for medium grade and lastly a formula for low 
grade butterine. The excess of yield over ingredients 
used shows amount of water absorbed. 

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF HIGH GRADE BUTTERINE. 



Materials and quantities 



525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil 

475 " " neutral lard. 

50 gallons 30 per cent, cream. 

300 pounds creamery butter. . . 

Labor and package 

Salt and color 

Total 



Cost per lb. 


Total cost 


$0.0875 


$45.19 


.08125 


38.57 


.42 


30.24 


.28 


84.00 


.01 


15.00 




1.00 



$314.00 



This formula will yield 1,500 pounds of butterine, 
therefore cost per pound is $0.1426. 



462 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF MEDIUM GRADE BUTTERINE. 



Materials and quantities 


Cost per lb. 


Total cost 


525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil 


$0.0875 
.08125 
.42 
.01 


$45 19 


475 '■ " neutral lard ... 

40 gallons 30 per cent, cream 


30.57 
40 32 


Labor and package 

Salt and color 


12.00 
1 00 






Total 




$137 08 







This formula will yield 1,200 pounds butterine, there- 
fore the cost is $0.1142 per pound. 

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF LOW GRADE BUTTERINE. 



Materials ana quantities 


Cost 


Total cost 


350 pounds No. 2 oleo oil 


$0.08 per lb. 
.04 

.08125 " 
.12 per gal. 


$28,00 


250 ' ' cotton seed oil 


10.00 


450 " neutral lard 


36.54 


60 gallons 33^ per cent, milk 

Labor and package 

Salt and color 


7.20 

12.00 

1 00 






Total 




$94.74 



This formula will yield 1,200 pounds butterine, there- 
fore the cost to produce and pack for shipment will be 
$0.0789 per pound. 

SHEINKAGE AND COST OF BUTTEKINE. 

The following table shows shrinkage and costs of dif- 
ferent grades of butterine, these being compiled from 
actual tests. It shows the different quantities of water 
absorbed by the butterine at different temperatures and 
it is readily understood that the amount of water ab- 
sorbed regulates the yield, although the more water that 
is absorbed the poorer the texture, so that, generally 
speaking, high yields are obtained by loss of texture and 
general character of the product. It will be seen at a 
glance that the higher the temperature of the water in the 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



463 



graining vat the greater the yield, and the lower the tem- 
I)erature of the water the less yield is obtained, although 
the texture of the product is improved. 

The high grade shrinks considerably less than the low 
grade. This is explained in two ways. First there is 
very little loss of cream in the high grade, because one- 
third of the entire quantity of cream used is butter fat, or 
solid matter. While in the low grade only one-sixth of 
the milk used is solid matter, and as the emulsion goes 
into the graining vat the milk is lost in the water. Fur- 
thermore, cotton seed oil being absent from the high 
grade quality the mass retains more water, as cotton 
seed oil has little affinity for water at any temperature. 

A less amount of salt was used in this particular test 
on the high grade on account of the presence of salt in 
creamery butter used in the formula. A careful perusal 
of the following table will prove interesting: 





TEST SHOWING SHRINKAGE AND COST 


OF BUTTERINE. 














% 






"^ 


















.c 




'■? 


^ 






r 










'% 


g 


^ 


Butterine 


1 


^ 
£ 


"o 


'o 


^ 






^ ^ 


1 




"^ 


fcjD 


0) 

a, 

01 


o 




1* 


o 
o 


C3 


C 
o 


^ 


a 






3 




2 










H 


O 


^; 


O 


S 


O 


o 




o 

o 
20 


o 


>H 


m 


m 


o 

O 


Low grade. 


38° 


350 


450 


250 


450 






60 


1560 


1210 


350 


.2243 


$7.82 


Low grade. 


45° 


350 


450 


250 


450- 






60 


20 


15^0 


1290 


270 


.1730 


7.36 


Medium 






























high grade 


40° 


525 


475 






300 




60 


20 


1360 


1294 


66 


.0485 


10.59 


High grade 


40° 


525 


475 


■, 




225 


300 


50 


20 


1575 


1497 


78 


.0495 


14.29 



Note the excessive shrinkage where weight of milk 
is taken into consideration with other ingredients used, 
the milk being lost in the chilling water and the flavor 
being retained. Where natural butter is used the 
shrinkasfe is much less. . 



464 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The following will give an idea of the amount of ma- 
chinery, also the different makes, necessary for a factory 
producing from 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of butterine daily 
and cost of same. To this amount should be added the 
cost of installation. This only includes actual machinery 
necessarj^. The cost of building, necessary coolers, etc., 
is not included: 

COST OF EQUIPMENT FOR BUTTERINE FACTORY. 

Four melting tanks, 4 feet diameter, 5 feet deep (gal- 
vanized lining, cone and syphon), at $125 each..? 500.00 
One oval agitator, 2x4 feet (arms galvanized lined) . 100.00 

One 100-gallon milk vat (Boyd cream ripener) 75.00 

Two 300-gallon milk vats (Boyd cream ripener) at 

$150 each 300.00 

One 100-gallon barrel churn 40.00 

Two workers (National) at $75 each 150.00 

One graining vat 4x8 feet, 2% feet deep, with pad- 
dle wheel 50.00 

One storage water vat 6 x 10 feet, 6 feet deep, with 

brine connection 50.00 

Eighteen graining trucks (box 4x5x1 foot), white 

pine, at $8 each 144.00 

Three tray trucks at $10 each 30.00 

One scale, tank and scale 75.00 

Solid and roll scales 25.00 

Milk receiving tank 15.00 

Tables, benches, moulds, trays, etc 150.00 

Total cost $1,704.00 

PROCESS OR RENOVATED BUTTER. 

This is a part of the butter business which has devel- 
oped very rapidly in the past few years and consists in 
treating butter which was either handled improperly 
when made or that has been kept until it has become ran- 
cid or out of condition. These goods are generally 
bought up at an inferior price and taken to a factory 
where they are reworked and sold for a good grade of 
butter. The method of handling is as follows: 

The butter to be treated is put in a tank ordinarily 
about 48 inches in diameter and 5 feet deep with a cone 
bottom. The cone should be about 2 feet deep. This tank 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 



465 



fits inside of anotlier tank leaving a 3-incli space for a 
"water jacket between. 

The stock to be handled is slowly melted at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 160° F, Ordinarily it takes about 
five hours to melt about 1,000 pounds. This degree of 
heat should not be exceeded, as a higher temperature im- 
parts a bad flavor. When the stock is reduced to the 
liquid form about 600 of the 1,000 pounds should be 
syphoned off into a blower tank. This tank should 




FIG. 157.— DIAGRAM OF BLOWER AND TANKS FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. 

be practically the same size as the melter with a 
water jacket and cone, but provided at ^the bottom with a 
blower head. 

The blower head is a block-tin plate having about the 
same circumference "as the tank and fits in at the top of 
the cone. It is perforated with i/s-inch holes and a IVo- 
inch hole in the center to permit a pipe of that size to 
pass through it from the blower above. Through this 
pipe air is forced at a pressure of about five pounds, the 
air being forced upward through the emulsion^ thereby 



466 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



removing the odors and bad flavors and thoroughly aerat- 
ing the product. 

This 600 pounds of emulsion should be blown for five 
or six hours, the length of time depending largely upon 
the stock used, at a temperature not exceeding 120° or 
under 100° F. At this time the milk is added and should 
be about three-quarters of the quantity of the stock used, 




/qp-rj J6«r ^Wirr/nr TiiotKrv to-o 



c^r^jm^j^r f-o 



g'-o'.-^tt* 




1 



FIG. 158.— PLAN OF TANKS, ETC., FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. 



or in a case of this kind, 450 pounds. The entire mass 
should be agitated about fifteen minutes at a tempera- 
ture of about 150° F. after the milk is added. Color and 
salt are added at this time. 

Both the tanks described here should be supplied with 
syphons ; the first tank or melter should have the syphon 
about 6 inches from the bottom of the cone. The blower 
tank should have the syphon just above the cone. 



BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 467 

Through the syphon in the melting tank the fats are 
drawn into the blower tank. The cnrds are allowed to 
remain in the bottom and are drawn ot¥ later by means of 
a 2-inch pipe. Through the syphon in the blower tank is 
drawn the finished product into the graining or crystal- 
lizing vat, the water being at a temperature of 40° F, 
The butter should be removed immediately from the crys- 
tallizing tank and allowed to stand long enough to thor- 
oughly drain ; then worked and packed in the usual man- 
ner. 

After all the fat in the form of melted oil has been run 
through the lower tank the bottom valve should be opened 
and the curd run into a '' Danish Weston " separator, 
which removes all the fat, and the curd is then thrown 
into a scrap vat, thereby avoiding the loss of any fat, 

MILK AND GEE AM FOR PEG CESS BUTTER. 

The milk and cream should be ripened as carefully 
as in making butterine or creamery butter, a ' ' starter ' ' 
being used under the same directions as given for but- 
terine. Milk is usually good enough for the ordinary 
grades. However, when something fancy is desired, or 
the prices permit, cream may be used to good advantage 
in producing a superior article. In fact this butter can 
be made to be indistinguishable from creamery butter. 

Process butter should be divided into two grades : 
No. 1 and .No. 2. A careful selection of stock at hand 
would readily determine which stock is good enough for 
No. 1 grade and the balance should be used in No. 2. A 
great deal depends upon the butter maker's judgment 
of the condition of the goods before blowing and after- 
ward, knowing when flavors are right, etc. The greatest 
difficulty encountered is in getting the flavor, as all the 
flavor comes from the milk and cream. The greatest care 



468 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

must be used in their preparation. Temperature in melt- 
ing is also very important since a few degrees of lieat 
too much will fix permanently any objectionable flavor. 

EQUIPMENT FOR MAKING PROCESS BUTTER. 

The equipment consists of two tanks, the outside one 
of heavy galvanized iron ; the inside of No. 18 steel plate. 
The Danish Weston separator is considered adaptable 
to handling as heavy stock as is required. Wooden 
scoops or forks are used in lifting the crystals from the 
crystallizing vat, placing tubs, etc. The '^ Disbrow " 
churn is generally used in the working and washing of 
the product. 

The machinery and apparatus necessary for a reno- 
vated butter factory of a capacity of 1,000 pounds daily, 
as well as the cost of same, are outlined in the following 
table. The cost does not include the installation of these 
machines : 

COST OF EQUIPMENT FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. 

One No. 1 blower $ 75.00 

One melting tank 75.00 

One blower 75.00 

One blower head 10.00 

One settling tank 10.00 

One crj'stallizing vat 25.00 

One crystallizing scoop 5.00 

Twenty tubs 35.00 

One No. 4 Disbrow churn 150.00 

One Danish-Weston separator 100.00 

Steam and blower pipes 85.00 

Total cost machinery for 1,000 lbs. daily capacity.. $ 645.00 

Cost of machinery for 2,000 pounds daily capacity. .. .$1,500.00 
Cost of machinery for 3,000 pounds daily capacity. . . . 2,000.00 
Cost of machinery for 5,000 pounds daily capacity.... 2,500.00 



MINOR PRODUCTS 469 



CHAPTER XXL 
MINOR PRODUCTS. 

BEEF EXTRACT. 

Beef extract is a product for which there is a very 
general demand and large quantities are made in packing 
centers, especially where canning of meats is done. In 
the cooking and handling of meats, juices or animal salts 
are dissolved to a considerable extent in the water in 
which the meat is placed, and by evaporating this water 
the beef extract is obtained. It is considered a very 
nutritious article and recommended by many physicians 
for convalescing patients. 

METHOD OF MAKING BEEF EXTRACT FROM CAlSTlSriNG LIQUORS. 

Corn beef liquor should be boiled first with steam in 
an open vat. In boiling this, the albumen which has been 
dissolved from the meat and is held in suspension in 
the liquor is coagulated and rises to the surface. This 
should not be skimmed off but should be used as the fil- 
trant when the liquor is pumped through to filter press. 
After this liquor has been boiled for five hours it should 
be allowed to settle for about half an hour. The albumen 
which rises to the surface should be stirred through the 
water and the liquid then pumped to the evaporators and 
reduced to about 30 degrees Baume. When in this condi- 
tion it should be again boiled in an open vat, adding clear 
water to the amount of about one-quarter of the original 



470 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

quantity of tlie liquor. The liquid is then again filtered 
and twelve pounds of sugar per 100 pounds of extract is 
added. It is again reduced in a vacuum pan and boiled 
down to a solid in an open kettle. The chloride of sodium 
or salt is taken out of the corned beef extract during the 
process of cooking. It drops to the bottom of the evap- 
orator and should be scraped off after the liquor has been 
taken out. 

EXTRACT FROM BEEF HEARTS. 

"Where a large sausage business is done and a consid- 
erable amount of beef hearts is used, it is very profitable 
to save the beef extract from these hearts, using the meat 
afterward in sausage. The method is as follows : 

The hearts should be first ground through an En- 
terprise grinder with an ]^-inch plate. The meat is 
put into soaking vats and covered with cold water, allow- 
ing same to stand from sixteen to twenty-four hours, 
changing the water three times. All the liquors drawn 
off the meat are pumped into cooking vats. Cook with 
open steam until the water comes to a boil; steam from 
twenty minutes to half an hour. At this time agitate it 
thoroughly, fully mixing in the coagulated albumen as 
this serves as the filtrant when being put through the 
filter press. 

Next, run the liquor through the filter press, evaporate 
in vacuum pans, and draw off and put in the finishing 
kettles, evaporating the contents to a solid. It should 
then be put in pails or kegs and allowed to stand for two 
weeks or more to allow the extract to work or " age." 
It should then be dissolved in about one-quarter the orig- 
inal amount of water to which is added six ounces of 
boracic acid, nine pounds of salt and twelve pounds of 
granulated sugar per 100 pounds of extract. After it is 
thoroughly mixed, again filter and evaporate to a solid. 



MINOR PRODUCTS 471 

It is then ready to be put up in the packages in which 
it is to be offered for sale. 

KOAST BEEF COOK WATER AND ROAST BEEF SOAK WATER. 

The water in which the beef has been cooked or soaked 
is boiled, filtered and handled the same as beef heart 
liquor. Beef hearts make the best extract, the canning 
liquors making a less desirable article, but the different 
grades can be mixed according to the demands of the 
market and production of material. 

FORMULA FOR BEEF FLUID. 

Beef fluid is made as follows : 

60 pounds No. 1 extract, 
40 pounds of water, 

6 ounces of boracic acid, 

1 pound glycerine. 

Beef hearts will yield 2.41 per cent of extract; corn 
beef water will yield 1.65 per cent extract; roast beef 
cook water, 1.55 per cent extract; and roast beef soak 
water, 1.30 per cent extract, 

MACHINERY USED IIS^ MAKI^STG BEEF FLUID. 

The following list of machinery is used in one of the 
largest canning plants in the United States where the 
liquors are all saved for beef extract. Deductions from 
this can be made for the volume of business desired. 

Double effect evaporators for fresh liquor. 

Single effect evaporators for corned beef liquor. 

One duplex vacuum pump for evaporators. 

Two thirty-gallon " Wm. Dopp " extract finishing kettles. 

One single vacuum pump for finishing kettles, size 8 x 10 x 12 

inches. 
One agitator 24 x 36 inches, with three paddles. 
Six cooking vats, capacity 800 gallons each. 
Two receiving vats, "capacity 600 gallons each. 
One soaking vat with three partitions, capacity 1,400 gallons, 

with heavy wire screen 12 inches from bottom. 
One rotary pump for use between soaking and cooking vats. 
One Enterprise grinder. 
One 36-plate filter press. 
One duplex pump for filter press. 
Ten fifty-gallon galvanized iron seeding tanks. 
One capping machine for jars. 
One capping machine for bottles. ' 



472 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The room required for installation of above machinery 
and the proper handling of materials is about as follows : 

Cold storage for soaking vats, 25 x 25 feet. 
Cooking vats and filter press, about 35x20 feet. 
Evaporators, finishing kettles and receiving vats, about 50 x 

40 feet. 
Label, packing and storage room, 30 x 25 feet. 

If evaporating room is high enough, cooking vats and 
filter press might be placed on platform to save room. 

PIGS FEET. 

Pigs feet are one of the by-products which by proper 
handling are converted into a very palatable diet. In pre- 
paring them, generally speaking, only the forward foot 
is used, as it is a better shaped foot to prepare than the 
hind foot and, besides, the hind feet are more or less dis- 
figured and out of condition by having the gam strings 
opened in order to hang the hog on the gam sticks. So 
that in general practice only the forward foot is used for 
edible purposes, the hind foot being used largely for mak- 
ing a low grade of glue. The method of preparing pigs 
feet is as follows : 

The feet are first scalded, after which the hoofs are 
removed and the feet are shaved and cleaned. After this 
process they should be put into a plain salt pickle, 90- 
degree strong by salometer test, and to this pickle should 
be added six ounces of saltpetre to each 100 pounds of 
feet. The feet should be left in this curing pickle for 
from six to eight days, or until they show a bright red 
appearance when cooked. If this red appearance does 
not extend clear through the feet after being cooked, it 
shows that they are not fully cured. They should not be 
left in the pickle longer than necessary to fully cure them 
for when they are too heavily salted before cooking it has 
the effect of making them break up in the cooking water. 



MINOR PRODUCTS 



473 




474 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

After the feet are properly cured in the salt pickle they 
should be cooked in a wooden vat (an iron vat discoloring 
them) which is provided with a false bottom about 6 
inches above the bottom, so that the direct heat from the 
steam pipe does not come in contact with the feet. The 
water should be brought to a temperature of 200° to 206° 
F. and held at this temperature until the feet are suffi- 
ciently cooked. The water should never be brought to 
the boiling point, as the feet will become badly broken, 
which greatly injures their appearance. After they are 
cooked they should be split through the center, a machine 
for this purpose being illustrated in Fig. 159. It was 
formerly the practice to split the feet by hand with a 
knife (Fig. 160). In doing it in this manner, however, 



FIG. 100.— HAND PIGS FOOT SPLITTER. 



the knee joint was invariably lost as it was impossible to 
split it. By means of the splitting device shown in Fig. 
159 the last knuckle is readily split, and consequently the 
yield of finished pigs feet is greatly increased. 

After the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly 
chilled in cold water, they should be put into a white wine 
vinegar pickle 45-degree strong, it being preferable to 
pack feet which are to be used at once in open vats in a 
refrigerated room held at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. 
Where feet are to be held for some months before using 
it is advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after 
filling the tierces with vinegar of 45-degree strength. The 
packages should be stored in a temperature 45° to 50° F. 



MINOR PRODUCTS 475 

When held this way it will be found that the feet have 
absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked 
increase in weight is obtained. There should be a gain 
of from 10 to 15 per cent in weight at the end of three 
months. 

The following tests show costs, in detail, of pigs feet 
put up in different sized packages, costs being figured at 
the regular Chicago market prices at the time these 
tests were made : 

TEST ON 483 PIECES OR 500 POUNDS PIGS FORE FEET. 

Debit: 
Cost of 500 pounds pigs fore feet at l%c per pound.. $ 5.63 

Shaving, hand and machine, 32c per 100 pieces 1.55 

Pulling toes, 5c per 100 pieces 24 

Counting, pickling and cooiiing 20 

Splitting, 2c per 100 pounds 10 

Miscellaneous labor 10 

Fifty-five pounds salt at %:C per pound 14 

Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound 10 

Administrative expense at 47c per 100 pounds on 300 

pounds produced 1.41 

Total $ 9.47 

Credit: 

Pigs feet oil, 18 pounds at $5.60 per cwt $ 1.00 

Pigs feet bones, 58 pounds at %c per pound .43 

Pigs feet trimmings, 13 pounds at l^/ic per pound.... .13 

Total $ 1.56 

Total net cost of 300 pounds of prepared feet $ 7.91 

Cost per pound, including administrative expense, $0,026. 

Green weight, 500 pounds; cleaned weight, 450 pounds; split 

weight, 300 pounds. 

\ 

COST OF FIVE BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET PER 

BARREL. 

950 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $24.70 

Five barrels at nV2C each 3.88 

Packing, one and one-third hours at llVzC per hour 23 

Pickle, sixty gallons at 2%c per gallon 1.50 

Coopering, one-half hour at 25c per hour 13 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Miscellaneous labor 09 

Total $30.63 

Cost of one barrel, $6.13. 



476 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COST OF FIVE HALF-BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE 
POUNDS NET PER HALF-BARREL. 

365 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 9.49 

Five half-baiTels at 35c each 1.75 

Packing, one-half hour at 17 %c per hour 09 

Pickle, twenty-five gallons at 2%c per gallon 62 

Coopering, one-quarter hour at 25c per hour 06 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Total $12.15 

Cost of one half-barrel, $2.43. 

COST OF FIVE QUARTER-BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX 
POUNDS NET PER QUARTER-BARREL. 

180 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 4.68 

Five quarter-barrels at 20c each 1.00 

Pickle, ten gallons at 2%c per gallon 25 

Coopering, eight minutes at 25c per hour 04 

Labor, packing 03 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Total $ 6.14 

Cost of quarter-barrel, $1.23. 

COST OF FIVE EIGHTH-BARRELS PICS FORE FEET PACKED AT EIGHTEEN 
POUNDS NET PER EIGHTH-BARREL. 

90 pounds feet at 2.6c per pound $ 2.34 

Five eighth-barrels at 18c each 90 

Packing, one-sixth hour at 17%c per hour 03 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon 19 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Coopering, seven minutes at 25c per hour 03 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Total $ 3.63 

Cost of one eighth-barrel, $0.73. 

COST OF FIVE KITS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET 

PER KIT. 

Seventy pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 1.82 

Five kits at 14c each 70 

Packing, one-sixth hour at 17i^c per hour 03 

Pickle, five gallons at ly^Q. per gallon 13 

Spices at 2c each 10 

Coopering, seven minutes at 25c per hour 03 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Total $ 2.85 

Cost per kit, $0.57. 

Prepared pigs feet at certain seasons of the year are 
a drug on the market and there are times when it is 



MINOR PRODUCTS 477 

found to pay better to tank them or use them for glue pur- 
poses. The following tests on rough uncleaned fore and 
hind feet will show the yield when tanked. Percentages 
in tests are correct. The prices are those ruling at the 
time tests were made : 

TEST ON TANKED PIGS FEET, 

Total weight of front feet tanked 1,070 pounds cooked in' 
tank five hours at forty pounds pressure: 

Sixty pounds hock meat, 5.81 per cent, at 3c per pound.. .$ 1.80 
Prime steam lard, 138 pounds, 12.90 per cent, at $9.35 

per cwt 12.90 

Tankage (dry basis), 125 pounds, 11.68 per cent, at $17.50 

per ton 1.09 

Total $15.79 

Gross value, $1.47 per cwt. 

Weight hind feet to tank, 996 pounds, cooked in test tank 
five hours, with forty pounds pressure: 

Prime steam lard, 163 pounds, 16.37 per cent, at $9.35 

per cwt $15.24 

Tankage (dry basis), 13.76 per cent, at $17.50 per ton.. . . 1.19 



Total $16.43 

Gross value, $1.62 per cwt. 

PIG TONGUES. 

Various uses are made of this piece of meat. They 
are very extensively used in canning factories where they 
are put up and known as " lunch tongue "; they are also 
used in different kinds of sausage, and are put up to quite 
an extent in vinegar pickle. When handled in the latter 
manner the following suggestions will be found of practi- 
cal value. 

The tongues after being trimmed should be cured in 
a 75-degree plain salt pickle using three ounces of salt- 
petre to 100 pounds of tongue. After the tongues are 
fully cured, which will require from eight to twelve days, 
they are scalded, the outer surface of the tongue being 
scraped off. In some instances the scalding is done be- 



478 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

fore the tongues are put in the pickle. Either way is 
proper. After being scraped and cleaned they are cooked 
as desired and afterward pickled in a white wine vinegar 
pickle of 45-degree strength. The following tests will 
show the cost of tongues packed in different sized pack- 
ages, the cost being determined by the cost of meat and 
supplies at the time tests were made: 

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES, OR 910 POUNDS PIG TONGUES. 

Debit: 

910 pounds pig tongues at 6i/4c per pound $56.88 

Scraping, at 15c per 100 pieces 1.50 

Counting, cooking, etc., three hours at 18c per hour 54 

Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces. 50 

Miscellaneous labor 20 

Administrative expense, 47c per 100 on 560 pounds pro- 
duced 2.63 

Total $62.25 

Credit: 
Green weight, 910 pounds; cooked weight, 560 pounds; 

shrinkage, 38 per cent. 
Trimming 112 pounds at l^/^c 1.68 

Net cost $60.57 

Cost per pound, 10 4/5c; cost handling per cwt., including 
administrative expense, $0,665 per 100 pounds finished. 

COST OF ONE BARREL PIG TONGUES PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET. 

190 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $20.52 

One barrel 78 

Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 

Pickle, ten gallons at 2i^c per gallon 25 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour .04 

Spices, 2c 02 

Miscellaneous labor 03 

Total cost per barrel $21.73 

COST OF TWO ONE-HALF BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED SEVENTY-THREE 
POUNDS NET PER ONE-HALF BARRREL. 

146 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $15.76 

Two one-half barrels at 35c each 70 

Packing, twenty-five minutes at 17i/^c per hour 08 

Ten gallons pickle at 2i^c per gallon 25 

Spices, 2c each 04 

Coopering, one-twelfth hour at 25c per hour 02 

Miscellaneous labor 02 

Total $16.87 

Cost per half-barrel, $8.44. 



MINOR PRODUCTS 479 

COST OF THREE ONE-FOURTH BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED AT THU^TY- 

SIX POUNDS NET. 

108 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $11.66 

Three one-fourth barrels at 20c each GO 

Packing, twenty-two minutes at 17%c per hour 06 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 19 

Spices, 2c each 06 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour 04 

Miscellaneous labor .01 

Total $12.62 

Cost per one-fourth barrel, $4.20. 



COST OF FIVE ONE-EIGHTH BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED EIGHTEEN 

POUNDS NET. 

Ninety pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $ 9.72 

Five one-eighth barrels at 18c each 90 

Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon .19 

Spices at 2c each 10 

Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour 04 

Miscellaneous labor 03 

Total $11.07 

Cost of one one-eighth barrel, $2.21. 



COST OP FIFTEEN KITS PIG TONGUES PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. 

210 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $22.68 

Fifteen kits at 14c each 2.10 

Packing, three-fourths hour at 17%c per hour 13 

Pickle, fifteen gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 38 

Spices at 2c each 30 

Coopering, one-third hour at 25c per hour 08 

Miscellaneous labor 09 

Total $25.76 

Cost of one kit, $1.72. 

\ 
FOEMULA FOE EXPOET PIG TONGUE PICKLE. 

There is at times quite a demand for fresh pig tongues 
in Liverpool and other foreign points, in which case the 
trade demands that they arrive there without being salt- 
cured. The following formula will be found very valu- 
able for this purpose and also point out how to carry 
tongues without salting them, when it is desired to do so : 
Use 1.16 pounds of boracic acid, fifty-eight pounds of 



480 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

borax, twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and seven and one- 
quarter pounds of saltpetre. 

The method of mixing is as follows : The boracic acid 
and borax is put into a vat containing sixty gallons of 
water. • The vat should be connected with steam supply 
so that it can be brought to the boiling point, cooking 
same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour. The 
salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred 
until thoroughly dissolved. x\fter the solution has been 
allowed to cool, add sufficient cold water to give it a 
strength of 21 degrees by salometer test. Chill the solu- 
tion to a temperature of 38° F. The tongues should be 
trimmed and thoroughly chilled, it being essential that 
they are in perfect condition. They should then be packed 
in a tierce, after which the tierce is filled with the pre- 
servative. Tongues should be shipped in refrigerator 
cars where the temperature is not allowed to go above 
38° F. 

PIG SNOUTS. 

These consist of the snout of the hog together with 
the upper lips and front part of the nose. During prep- 
aration they are handled very much in the same manner 
as pigs feet. They are first shaved and cleaned, after- 
ward scalded, removing the outer skin or membrane of 
the nose. Then they are cured, using a 90-degree plain 
salt pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre 
to 100 pounds of snouts. After they are fully cured, 
which will require from five to eight days, they should 
be cooked in a wooden vat to the desired degree of ten- 
derness, after which they are chilled in cold water and 
loickled in white wine vinegar of 45-degree strength. The 
following tests show the cost of preparing pig snouts 
in different sized packages. 



MINOR PRODUCTS 481 

TEST ON 1,060 PIECES, OR 1,000 POUNDS PIG SNOUTS. 

Debit: 

Cost of 1,000 pounds pig snouts at 2%c per pound $25.00 

Shaving at 40c per 100 pieces 4.24 

Labor, truclving, cooking, inspecting, pickling, etc 1.10 

100 pounds salt at i/4c per pound 25 

Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound 10 

Administrative expenses, 47c per 100 pounds on 610 

pounds production 2.87 

Total 133.56 

Credit: 
Trimmings, 90 pounds at 2c per pound 1.80 

Net cost $31.76 

Cost per pound, 5 l/5c; cost of handling, administrative 

expense, 85 6/lOc per cwt. 

Green weight, 1,000 pounds; cleaned weight, 900 pounds; 

cooked weight, 610 pounds. 

COST OF FIVE ONE-HALF BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE 
POUNDS NET PER ONE-HALF BARREL. 

365 pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $18.98 

Five half barrels at 35c each 1.75 

Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 

Pickle, twenty-five gallons at 2%c per gallon 62 

Spices at 2c each 10 

Coopering, one-fourth hour at 25c per hour 07 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Total $21.65 

Cost per one-half barrel, $4.33. 

COST OF TEN ONE-FOURTH BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX 
POUNDS NET PER ONE-FOURTH BARREL. 

360 pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $18.72 

Ten one-fourth barrels at 20c each 2.00 

Packing, one hour at 17%c per hoitr 17 

Pickle twenty gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 50 

Spices, 2c each 20 

Coopering, one-third hour at 25c per hour 08 

Miscellaneous labor 09 

Total $21.76 

Cost per one-fourth barrel, $2.18. 

COST OF FIVE ONE-EIGHTH BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT EIGHTEEN 

POUNDS NET. 

Ninety pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $ 4.68 

Five one-eighth barrels at 18c each 90 

Packing, one-third hour at 17 %c per hour 06 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Coopering, one-fourth hour at 25c per hour 06 

Miscellaneous labor 04 

Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon 19 

Total $ 6.03 

Cost per one-eighth barrel, $1.21. ' 



482 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COST OF FIVE KITS OF PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. 

Seventy pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $ 3.64 

Five kits at 14c each 70 

Paclving, one-fourth hour at 17i/^c per hour 04 

Piclile, five gallons at 2i^c per gallon 13 

Spices, 2c each 10 

Coopering 03 

Miscellaneous labor 03 

Total ? 4.67 

Cost per kit, $0.93. 

TEST ON PIG SNOUTS IN TANK. 

475 pounds pig snouts, cooked three hours at forty pounds 

pressure: 
Prime steam lard, 120 pounds, or 44 per cent at $0.1065 

per pound $12.89 

Tankage, forty-four pounds, or .09 per cent, at $19.00 per 

ton 42 

Total $13.31 

Value per cwt., green, $2.75. 



HOG HAIR AND BEISTLES. 

The introduction of the Poland China and Berkshire 
strains of blood has practically done away with the bris- 
tle business in this country, as these breeds of hogs have 
very few bristles on them and the hair is very much 
shorter than on the hogs not so finely bred, and in many 
of the large packing centers the saving of bristles has 
been abandoned as it was found they could not save them 
in competition with foreign markets. The Russians and 
Chinese furnish a large percentage of the markets of the 
world with bristles and at this time the best bristles are 
obtained from these two nations. Their hogs seem to be 
more on the wild boar order and are more heavily cov- 
ered with hair, which makes verj^ much better bristles 
than any that are obtained in this country. The bristles 
are used largely for brush work — all kinds of paint 
brushes, clothes brushes, etc. 

The usual method of fitting hogs hair for the market is 
either to sun-dry it, curing the hair outdoors, or cooking 



MINOR PRODUCTS 483 

it in large vats and drying it mechanically. As the hair 
is scraped from the hog there is a great deal of scurf or 
outer skin of the hog left on the hair. This must be re- 
moved in order to make the hair merchantable. The 
method usually practiced is to spread the hair out on the 
ground as produced and when the hot weather ap- 
proaches, the hair is raked and turned daily. The scurf 
dries from the heat of the sun and, because of the con- 
stant handling, falls off the hair. When the scurf is thus 
removed the hair is raked up and baled and is then ready 
for sale to mattress manufacturers, etc. It takes from 
two to three months for the hair to become cured in the 
sun-drying process. 

A method that is used in some of the larger packing 
centers is to cook the hair in large vats, when the scurf 
will fall off from the hair and settle to the bottom of the 
vat. The hair is then removed from the vats and run 
through large wringers and dried in dry rooms artificial- 
ly heated. While this iS' a very much quicker way of 
handling than sun-drying in the field it is also more ex- 
pensive. 



484 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XXII. 
FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN, 

COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZER. 

This is a by-product which was entirely lost before 
the advent of the modern packing house, and it becomes 
valuable only when handled in large quantities as it is 
possible to do where there is a concentration of slaugh- 
tering. A small packer killing only a few cattle could 
not atTord to save the material required for this product, 
as in a small way the cost of production would be more 
than the value of the finished product, but where it is pro- 
duced on a large scale it forms a department of consid- 
erable commercial value. The product from the j^acking 
house is only a part of the finished fertilizer. A com- 
plete fertilizer consists of food for plant life, and gen- 
erally speaking there are three primary elements neces- 
sary to make a complete fertilizer, as follows : 

1. Ammonia or nitrogen. 

2. Phospliate of bone, containing about 50 per cent free 
pliosphoric acid. 

3. Sulphate or muriate of potash, sulphate being the best. 

These ingredients mixed with pure sand and water 
will stimulate the growth of vegetation and as the sand 
has not the elements that will sustain plant life the test 
shows conclusively that the added fertilizer supplies the 
necessary food. To get the best results it is essential to 
know the requirements of the land and the crops to be 
grown. A rich land has all the elements to a greater or 



FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 485 

lesser degree, while a poor land lacks some or nearly all, 
and some land will have all the elements but one. 

The nse of any of the three primary elements on land 
will enrich it, for water, atmosphere and sunshine assist 
in supplying the other elements, and for this reason a 
land continually worked while the crop is growing gives 
better results. It has been demonstrated that some crops 
require richer soil than others, for example potatoes, 
onions and root crops need a richer solution, as they ex- 
haust the strength of the land rapidly, while grain and 
especially clover do not. Clover and some other plants 
draw nitrogen from the air in excess of their needs and 
thus actually fertilize the earth in which they grow. Again 
some plants require proportionately more of one of the 
elements; for instance, tobacco and oranges need an ex- 
cess of potash, while grain needs the phosphates, and 
cotton the ammonia. One way to determine what a plant 
requires is to burn it and analyze the ash, which will give 
the proportion of elements. 

While there is no fixed rule to go by in the use of fer- 
tilizers, as the man}^ different soils, climates, mixtures 
of fertilizers, etc., make conditions which must be judged 
by themselves, yet few soils are so rich but that the addi- 
tion of a fertilizer proves a benefit, increasing the yield 
with the same labor. 

The principal articles made in a poaching house that 
are afterwards used in producing finished fertilizers are 
as follows : 

First, blood and concentrated tankage, which are used 
as ammoniates. 

Second, ordinary tankage, being the residue from 
cooking and pressing the finished products. 

Third, bone meal or ground steam bone, comprising 
the bone phosphates. 



486 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 487 

To these are also added muriate or sulphate of potash. 
The above constitutes the basis of manufactured fer- 
tilizers. Guano and fish from canneries are other am- 
moniate producers. Shells and phosphate rock found in 
the United States, largely in the southern part, also make 
phosphates, the latter product being used very extensive- 
ly in the manufacture of fertilizer. It is only within a 
comparatively few years that this product was discov- 
ered and rock is found in the southern states today which 
analyzes as high as 64 per cent pure bone phosphate, the 
phosphate in the condition found being insoluble ; it has 
to be treated with sulphuric acid which makes the bone 
phosphate in this rock soluble, so that the plant can ab- 
sorb it. It is generally treated in the proportion of sixty 
pounds of acid to 100 pounds of rock, the mixture being 
allowed to stand for five or six months to allow the acid 
to thoroughly disintegrate it. 

While bone meal and steam bone are slowly soluble 
to the plant without acid, with the use of acid they become 
quickly soluble, so that the plant would exhaust the 
strength of the mixture in one season. The ordinary 
bone meal lasts about three seasons in soil. 

The market fertilizers contain, according to require- 
ments for different plants for which they are used, from 
2 to 8 per cent of ammonia, from 6 to 10 per cent of bone 
phosphate and from 4 to 10 per cent potash, the balance 
being a filler, so that when a market product is mixed, 
about these percentages of plant food are used, with 
enough cheap ingredients, such as ashes or dirt, to make 
the required weight and bulk. 

TANKAGE FOE FERTILIZEK. 

As fast as the tankage comes from the press, the treat- 
ment of which was described under the head of '' Tank 



488 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 



489 



House," it is ready for the fertilizer department, where 
it is put into the form of a field fertilizer, which is done 
by putting it through a dryer and evaporating the moist- 
ure. Diagrams of plan of fertilizer room, located con- 
venient to tank house, showing also location of conveyors 
for handling material to dryers and section of conveying 




Z2-J 



21-8 



FIG. 163.— CROSS SECTION THROUGH FERTILIZER ROOM. 



and drying apparatus are shown in Figs. 161, 162 and 163. 
Tankage coming from the press is from 50 to 60 per cent 
moistur^. The device for extracting this moisture most 
commonly used is a steam dryer with an agitator in the 
bottom. The tankage should first go through a picker, or 



490 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

some device for breaking up the cakes as it comes from 
the press, after which it is ready for the dryer. After 
being dried it is ready for the market and is either sold 
as ground or unground tankage. When ground it is put 
through a disintegrator with a system of screens, etc., 
which thoroughly break up all the particles, reducing it 
to the proper degree of fineness. 

The largest proportion of the packing house fertilizer 
business is with the ^' mixers," or the people who manu- 
facture the finished fertilizer for the consumer. They 
buy the raw material and mix it, selling it to the trade 
direct, although some of the large packing houses today 
are in the '' finished " fertilizer business. Nearly all the 
fertilizer product produced by packing houses is sold on 
a basis of so much per unit of ammonia and so much 
per unit of bone phosphate. The price of a ton of blood 
for instance that will analyze 17 per cent, if the price 
per unit was $2.00, would be $2x17 or $34.00 per ton. 
Packing house fertilizer should analyze about as follows : 

ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZER. 

Blood, 16 per cent to 17 per cent ammonia, 10 per cent 
moisture. 

Concentrated tankage, 15 per cent to 16 per cent ammonia, 
2 per cent to 3 per cent moisture. 

No. 1 tankage, 9 to 10 per cent ammonia, 10 to 14 per cent 
bone pliosphate, 12 to 15 per cent grease, 10 per cent 
moisture. 

No. 2 tankage, which is made largely from bones, as will be 
noted by the percentage of bone phosphate, is better kept 
separate, as it is a disadvantage to have a No. 1 tankage 
that runs extremely high in bone phosphate. It analyzes as 
follows: 4 to 8 per cent ammonia, 25 to 40 per cent bone 
phosphate, 7 to 10 per cent grease, 10 per cent moisture. 

Raw bone meal, 3 to 5 per cent ammonia, 55 per cent bone 
phosphate. 

Hoof Meal: It is oftentimes found advantageous to grind 
cattle hoofs, selling them on their ammonia basis. When 
they are thus handled they will average from 12 to 13 per 
cent of ammonia. 

Average weight of dry blood per bullock, about eight pounds. 

Average weight of dry tankage per bullock, about ten 
pounds. 



FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 491 

METHOD OF TEEATING BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 

In the handling of this product all foreign matter 
should be kept from it, such as water, manure, refuse, 
etc. If water is allowed to get into the blood it must be 
taken out when the blood is cooked, and then it carries 
away with it a large amount of ammonia, consequently 
in order to get the best results the blood should be kept 
free from all foreign substances. As fast as the animals 
are bled the blood should be run into large vats or recep- 
tacles where it can be held until a sufficient amount is ob- 
tained for cooking. It should then be pumped or drawn 
into the cooking tank. Any ordinary tank or vat may be 
used for this purpose. After the blood is in the receptacle 
live steam is turned on and the material allowed to cook 
until it is thoroughly heated. As soon as the steam be- 
gins to show through the blood fully it is cooked, the ob- 
ject in cooking being simply to congeal or thoroughly 
coagulate. Over-cooked blood is very hard to press and 
dry, causing waste of ammonia. 

The blood after being cooked should be drawn into a 
vat, allowing all the water to drain off. It is then put into 
a hydraulic press, the cakes being built very thick — from 
8 to 10 inches. These are then pressed lightly, thereby 
extracting all the moisture possible without compressing 
them too hard. If blood is pressed too hard it is difficult 
to dry, as it will come through the dryer i in small globular 
balls, which if broken open and examined will be found 
to contain considerable moisture, but if pressed in large 
cakes, and lightly, the blood readily granulates. After 
the blood is dried it is ready for market. It is then 
known as " unground blood." If purchasers wish it 
ground it is simply put through the mill and screen and 
furnished as desired. The following test shows the value 
and yield of blood from different animals : 



492 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

VALUE AND YIELD FROM BEEF BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 

Yield from 100 head cattle av. lbs. per head 1,063 

Weight raw blood, lbs 3,250 av. lbs. per head 32.50 

Weight cooked pressed blood, 1,718 av. lbs. per head 17.18 

Weight dried blood, lbs 747 av. lbs. per head 7.47 

The value of seven and one-half pounds of blood per head, based 

on 17 per cent ammonia at $2.00 per unit of ammonia worth $34.00 per 

ton is as follows: 

71/^ pounds blood $0.1275 

Less expense for handling 0.0261 



Net value per head $0.1014 

VALUE AND YIELD HOG BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 

6,710 pounds raw blood from 950 hogs; live weight, 211,850; aver- 
age weight, 223 pounds. 
950 hogs yield 6,710 pounds raw blood. 
6,710 pounds raw blood yields 1,243 pounds commercial blood, 

18.52 per cent. 
1,243 pounds commercial blood, 17.47 per cent ammonia, at $2.00 

per unit $21.65 

Labor and general expenses 3.34 



Net value 



Basis, ton raw wt.: Basis, 100 hogs: Yield lbs. blood to 100 

Yield, 130.8 lbs. lbs. live wt: 

Yield $6.45 com. blood. . .$2,279 Green 3.17 

Expense 99 Expenses 351 Commercial 59 



Net value $5.46 Net value ...$1,928 

VALUE AND YIELD SHEEP BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 

886 pounds raw blood from 2,150 sheep; live weight, 19,708 

pounds; average weight, 92 pounds. 
Yield: Commercial blood, 23.41 per cent, 207.5 \ 

pounds at $34.24 per ton I $3,552 

Yield: Ammonia, 17.12 per cent, $2.00 per unit. ) 

Labor and general expenses 558 



Total net value $2,994 

Basis, one ton, raw wt.: Basis, 100 sheep: 

Yield $8,018 Yield, 96.51 lbs. com. blood . $1,652 

Expense 1.259 Expenses 259 



Net value $6,759 Net value $1,393 

Yield blood, 100 pounds live weight: 

Green blood 4.49 pounds 

Commercial blood 1.05 pounds 

PRODUCTION OF ALBUMEX FROM BEEF BLOOD. 

This is a product, which at times is very profitable 
to produce, while at other times, owing to a cheap article 



FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 493 

which is imported from Europe, there is little or no profit 
in it. Albumen is used very extensively in gingham mills 
for the purpose of setting the colors permanently in the 
goods. Its manufacture is a very simple process, but as 
there is only a limited demand for it, it is not very gener- 
ally manufactured. The process is as follows : 

The beef blood is caught from the animal in round 
pans as soon as the creature is stuck. If the cattle are 
hung up while being bled, the pan should be held close to 
the neck of the animal so that the blood will have as little 
fall or disturbance as possible. The blood from each ani- 
mal should be collected in a separate pan, it being un- 
wise to put the blood of different cattle in the same pans 
for settling. The pan of blood should then be carried as 
carefully as possible so that no agitation takes place, to 
some out-door jjoint and there allowed to congeal for an 
hour. At the end of this time it will be found in a clotted 
or rubbery condition, and should then be cut up into cubes 
about one inch square, the blood in the pan being at this 
time about 2 to 3 inches deep. After it is thus cut 
up it is dropped into a galvanized iron box about 2 feet 
square with a sieve (Vo-inch me^h) bottom, so as to hold 
the clotted blood but allow the serum to drip from it into 
the pan below. 

The first drain of the blood is of a reddish color and 
is used for a No. 3 or '' sugar house '' albumen. The 
last draining is a light colored serum which follows, and 
this is what constitutes the No. 1 albumen (style of i3ans 
and device for draining the serum are shown in Fig. 
164). As soon as the lighter colored serum begins to 
show the pan should be placed in the receiving dish and 
allowed to drain until the serum ceases to drip from the 
blood. What is left of the blood is then removed and used 
for fertilizing purposes. 



494 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The serum thus collected is allowed to settle in the 
pan for a period of from twelve to fourteen hours. By 
this time it is thoroughly settled and ready to be drained 
off which is done by means of a glass tube passing 
through a close fitting cork. J^j this method the serum 
can be drained close to the settlings, the serum being 
on top of the sediment or settlings. The pan should be 
set on a sloping rack. In its lowest corner there should 
be an opening with the small neck downward and tightly 
corked as shown in Fig. 164:. Through this cork is run 
a small glass tube about Vi-inch in diameter and 4 to 5 
inches long. The tube when not in use extends upward 
through the serum; as soon as the serum is fully settled 



Gd 



>© 



34X 24 X 4 ' 

g/ilv/\niz£:d iron pan 



^t j, CORK. 

^ S GLASS TUBE. 



FIG. 164.— SETTLING PAN FOR DRAINING SERUM FROM BLOOD. 

this glass tube is pulled carefully down through the cork 
until its top is submerged, when the serum readily drains 
off. The pans must be set rigidly on the racks and not 
agitated in any manner whatever, as the slightest move- 
ment of the pans would soon mix the serum and sedi- 
ments. 

The draining of the serum is the most particular part 
of the work in the production of beef albumen. Care 
should be taken to see that no settlings are drawn off with 
the serum. The room where the serum is drained from 
the blood should be kept at a temperature of 45° to 50° 
F. When the serum has been thus drained it is ready 
for drying. This is done by putting it in jelly plates, 
these being generally made of earthenware, the bottom 



FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 



495 





496 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

of tlie plate being thinly covered, not to exceed %-incli. 
The pan should be in a perfectly level support, so the 
serum can dry evenly. When dried the product will be 
in the form of thin flakes of light amber color. The pans 
should be greased with lard oil before using to prevent 
the albumen from sticking to them. The plates when 
filled are put into a dry room where there is an artificial 
circulation of air with a temperature of from 100° to 
120° F. When it is thoroughly dried, the plates are tak- 
en out and the albumen is scraped off the bottom with a 
small hand scraper. It is then in a suitable condition for 
market. 

The first draining or dark albumen of the blood is 
collected and dried in the same manner as the light albu- 
men above described. The average production of No. 1 
albumen, per bullock, is about one-half pound per head, 
and of the dark or sugar house albumen about one pound 
per head. Cows and Texas cattle make the best albumen. 
The cost of producing albumen does not exceed five cents 
per pound for all expenses. As so little of value is taken 
from the blood the raw material is not worth figuring. 

In Fig. 165 is presented a detail of a home-made blood 
pump. In ordinary packing house practice much diffi- 
culty is encountered trying to pump blood and meat ref- 
use from bone house, etc., where there is a great deal 
of sediment and coarse stuff liable to get in and do dam- 
age to the valves of an ordinary pump. In this illustra- 
tion is shown a pump consisting of check valves and fit- 
tings, with the exception of stuffing box, and plunger 
on which there is some machine work necessary, details 
being shown. For anyone in need of a device of 
this kind it will be found to be very economical as well 
as effective. 



BOXES AND COOPERAGE 497 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
BOXES AND COOPERAGE. 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOXES. 

Of the many supplies needed about a packing liouse^ 
one of the most important is boxes into which the fin- 
ished products are packed ready for shipment. Where 
they are used in such large numbers, it is very essential 
to have a box suitable for the products which will be 
packed into it without waste of room, sufficiently strong 
to withstand handling in transit and at the same time 
of minimum weight on account of freight charges. 

The kind of lumber used for packing boxes varies in 
different localities. Cotton wood is the best and wherever 
available, should be used. The packing house industry 
has created a very important putlet for this otherwise 
almost worthless wood. It has no natural flavor and is 
very desirable for lard, butterine boxes, etc. It is used 
for making the small-sized packages into which lard is 
drawn direct instead of using pails or ^ tubs. Boxes for 
these purposes are usually dovetailed and have a sliding 
cover. Where cotton wood is not available white pine 
is used, although in this case it is necessary to use thicker 
lumber, which as a consequence makes the boxes heavier. 
The following list gives the kind of boxes, inside 
measurements, thickness of lumber in the sides, top, bot- 
tom, ends and cleats, where necessary. The figures are 
applicable to cotton wood only : 



498 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 







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BOXES AND COOPERAGE 



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cans lunch tongues 
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cans " " 
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cans " " .... 
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cans chipped beef, 
cans roast beef . . . 
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cans flat roast beef 
cans flat roast beef 
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cans lunch tongue . 
cans boneless ham . 
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506 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COOPEEAGE SPECIEICATIOlSrS. 

The following specifications will serve for all kinds 
of cooperage used throughout a packing house and makes 
a very satisfactory package for the different require- 
ments : 

SIX-HOOP NO. 1 TIERCES. 

Staves 33 % inches long 

Heads 20i/4 inches wide 

Bilge 791/^ inches circumference 

Cliime % inch 

Six iron hoops. 

Head hoops 1% inches wide, No. 18 iron 

Quarter hoops li/^ inches wide, No. 19 iron 

Bilge hoops 1% inches wide. No. 18 iron 

Heads % inch thick 

Staves % inch thick 

WOOD-BOUND BEEF TIERCES. 

Staves 33% inches long 

Heads 20% inches wide 

Bilge l^Vz inches circumference 

Chime 1 Vs inches 

Hoops: First wooden hoop on bilge; then one iron hoop; then 

five wooden hoops; then one iron hoop; then one chime hoop on 

each end. 

Staves % inch 

Heads % inch 

LARD TIERCES. 

Staves 33l^ inches long 

Heads 20% inches wide 

Bilge 7914 inches circumference 

Chime IVs inches 

Two-thirds of the tierce to be covered with wooden hoops for 
prime steam lard. 

Staves % inch 

Heads % inch 

EIGHT-HOOP TIERCES. 

Same specifications as six-hoop tierces, with two more hoops on, 
that is, one additional hoop on each end, 1% inches wide. No. 19 
iron used for prime steam and export refined lard, two weights for 
latter; on tierce weighing seventy-seven pounds, figure 17 per cent 
tare; on tierce weighing seventy-two pounds, figure 16 per cent tare. 

IRON-BOUND OAK PORK BARRELS. 

Staves 30 inches long by % inch thick 

Head llVz inches wide by % inch thick 

Bilge 69 inches circumference 

Chime 1 inch 

Six iron hoops. 

Head hoop IVz inches 

Quarter hoops 1% inches 

Bilge hoops lYz inches 

No. 18 iron. 



BOXES AND COOPERAGE 507 

WOOD-BOUND OAK PORK BARRELS. 

Just the same as iron-hoop pork barrels, but covered with wooden 
hoops — no iron hoops — in two and four series. 

ASH PORK BARRELS. 

Same specifications as iron-bound pork barrels put up bound with 
both wood and iron, wood being most expensive. 

BASSAVOOD LARD EXPORT HALF BARRELS. 

Staves 22 inches by 7/16 inch 

Head 14% inches wide by i/^ inch thick 

Bilge 56 inches circumference 

Three wooden hoops on bilge, then one-quarter hoop, then one 

iron collar hoop (No. 20 iron, 1 inch wide), then one wood chime 

hoop at each end. 

WOOD-BOUND BASSWOOD TIERCES FOR EXPORT CASINGS. 

Staves 36 inches long by % inches thick 

Head 22i/4 inches wide by % inch thick 

Bilge 86 inches in circumference 

Chime 1% inches 

One head; one bilge hoop of No. 18 iron, 1% inches wide; one 
quarter hoop, 1% inches wide, of No. 18 iron, at each end; one chime 
hoop 1% inches wide No. 18 iron; balance, wooden hoops. 

NO. 19 SLACK BARRELS. 

Staves 30 Inches long 

Head 18 inches wide 

Bilge ~ 75 inches in diameter 

Three patent wooden hoops on each end. 

SLACK TIERCES FOR STEARINE. 

Staves , 35 inches 

Heads 23 % Inches wide 

Bilge 891/^ inches 

Chime % inch 

Two patent wood hoops on each end, and two on each bilge. 

WOOD-BOUND HOG BUNG TIERCES. 

Staves 31 inches by % inch 

Heads 20% inches by % inch 

Bilge 791/^ inches in circumference 

Chime I14 inches 

Two iron collar hoops (No. 18 iron, 1^ inches wide); twelve 
wooden chime hoops. 

EIGHTY-POUND PIGS FEET PACKAGE MADE OF WHITE PINE AND BIRCH. 

Staves 19% inches long 

Heads II14 inches wide 

Bilge 49 inches 

Chime % inch 

Three wooden hoops on each bilge and three on each head. 



508 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

FORTY-POUND QUARTER BARREL PACKAGE MADE OF WHITE PINE OR BIRCH, 
FOR PIGS FEET, TRIPE AND OTHER OFFAL. 

Staves 17 inches long 

Heads 10% inches wide 

Bilge 381/4 inches 

Chime % inch 

Two head hoops and two bilge hoops of wood each end. 



GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR PACKAGES. 

The following are the government specifications for 
packages containing pork or beef. 

The packages must be made of entirely new and of 
the best seasoned heart-of-white-oak staves and head- 
ings: The staves shall not be less than %-inches thick 
and the headings not less than %-inches thick. They 
shall be three-quarter hooped over, including galvanized 
iron hoops with the best hickory hoops, and each one- 
half barrel shall have on it four galvanized iron hoops; 
one of 114-inches in width to each bilge and one of 1%- 
inches in width on each chime, and each shall be 1/16- 
inch thick. 

Each half barrel shall have a capacity of sixteen gal- 
lons and must be branded, if it contains beef, by burning 
on its head ' ' Navy Beef, ' ' name of the contractor, name 
of packer 's brand, and on the bung stave, the letter ' ' P 



>> 



REFRIGERATOR BOXES. 

In the shipping of fresh meats which are to be sent 
by express, or where small quantities are sent in insuf- 
ficient amounts to warrant the use of a car, thousands 
of refrigerator boxes are used. In such cases a good 
refrigerator box is made necessary in the handling of 
the product to the trade — a box that will stand the 
abuse, wear and tear in shipping and at the same time one 
that is not excessively heavy, adding unnecessarily to the 
express charges. The dimensions given below are for 



BOXES AND COOPERAGE 509 

wooden boxes which are generally made of 1-inch clear 
pine lumber, the corners being securely fastened with 
angle iron, or with heavy galvanized iron, and the covers 
put on with specially strong hinges as the boxes meet 
with a great deal of hard usage and when filled must 
necessarily be strong in order to withstand the jar and 
strain. 

A galvanized iron box containing the meat is placed 
inside of the wooden box, leaving about 2 inches of space 
around it and 4 inches of spaee on top. The meat to be 
shipped is packed tightly into the galvanized iron box, 
which is then placed in the wooden box and the space 
around the sides and top filled with crushed ice. In this 
condition meat will keep fresh in hot weather for from 
thirty-six to forty-eight hours under ordinary conditions. 

The following dimensions are those generally in use 
for the different sized wooden boxes enumerated : 

Capacity. Inside measure, inches. 

50 pounds 26 X 16Vs x 9 

100 pounds 24 X 18 x 14 

100 pounds 26 X 18 x 13 

200 pounds 34x18 x 181/2 

200 pounds 34 x 20 x 16 

300 pounds 38 x 24 x 19 

500 pounds > 42 x 28 x IS^^ 



510 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

CONVENIENT DEVICES. 

In this chapter descriptions are given of a number of 
apparatuses that will be found very convenient in the 
packing house, as proved by experience. It also includes 
a number of miscellaneous items in modern slaughter- 
house practice not directly connected with any of the de- 
partments treated in the foregoing chapters. These are 
necessarily treated very briefly partly because of lack of 
space and partly because they really belong to subjects 
indirectly connected with the packing house industry, or 
only in connection with the largest central houses, and 
yet are subjects on which there may be more or less 
inquiry. 

CALKING DEVICE. 

Fig. 166 shows detail of a calking machine. This is 
a very useful device where there is a large amount of 
calked floor space. Calking floors is very expensive where 
it is done by hand work but with a machine of this kind 
it is done very economically. Spun oakum should be 
used and simply laid on top of the crevices in the floor to 
be filled. The calking feature of the machine consists 
of a 10 or 12-inch circular saw, the teeth being ground off, 
and the machine being run over the crevice forces in the 
oakum or cotton, as the case may be, very compactly, 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



511 



making a much tighter job than can possibly be done by 
hand work. 

ELEVATOR HOIST. 

A very essential part of the equipment of a packing 
house is good elevators. The machine shown in Fig. 167 
makes a very useful and economical elevator, which can 
either be driven from shaft direct or belted from motor. 
It will be noticed that the drum is grooved for the recep- 
tion of the rope, which prevents it from wearing. The 




FIG. 166.— DETAIL OF CALKING MACHINE. 



drum is also long enough so that it is unnecessary to have 
the rope wrap or rise upon itself in order to bring the ele- 
vator to the top of the shaft, thereby saving it from a 
great deal of wear and tear. It is also supplied with a bal- 
ance wheel to aid in starting the hoist. The pulleys are 
36 inches in diameter by 8-inch face. The speed on belt 
pulley is 240 revolutions per minute, on drum shaft sixty 
revolutions per minute, of elevator 150 feet per minute. 
The horse power required to operate this elevator is 
about twenty-five, while the capacity of hoist is 5,000 



512 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



pounds. It requires a floor space of about 9 feet long by 
61/2 feet wide and 41/2 feet high. The machine weighs 
5,375 pounds. 

BAREEL TRUCK. 

A barrel truck that will be found exceedingly con- 
venient about a packing house and one that is easily built 
or prepared is shown in outline in Fig. 168. 

HOG TRAVELER. 

A very efficient hog traveler is illustrated in the ac- 
companying diagram, Fig. 169. It will be noticed that the 




FIG. 167.— ELEVATOR HOIST. 



flanges on the wheel which runs on the trolley are bev- 
eled, which causes the traveler to make turns on 
the overhead rail without friction and without danger 
of leaving the rail. The bevel prevents the wheel from 
catching against any slightly projecting edge of a joint 
in the rail and entirely obviates the trouble that is so 
often experienced during rush periods of having the 
carcasses stick on some curve. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



513 



HANDY CAET. 



A very useful cart for packing house purposes is illus- 
trated in Fig. 170. Having large wheels it runs easily. 




l^¥ I 



"|lj^-<^' cOTTEF? 



PIG. 168.— DIAGRAM OF CONVENIENT BARREL TRUCK. 



In purchasing trucks of any kind the purchaser should 
insist that there be at least a %-inch crown on the 
rim of all wheels, as this obviates the trouble from 



514 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



sharp edges coming in contact with the floor and the floor 
will last much longer where trucks are thus looked after. 
The size of the platform of the truck is 34 x 54 inches. 




FIG. 169.— DETAIL OF HOG TRAVELLER. 



TINMING HOOKS. 



About a packing house there are always a number of 
hooks required on which to hang meat both on the trucks 
and on the stationary racks; also in the cars, all of 
which have to be tinned in order to keep them bright and 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 515 

clean, and to prevent the otherwise resulting rust, etc., 
from discoloring the meats. 

If any considerable quantity of hooks is to be tinned, 
it is very much cheaper to fit up an apparatus and do the 
tinning than to have it done outside, as the charges for 
this kind of work are generally exorbitant. The process 
recommended is as follows: 




FIG. 170.— FAT CART OR TRUCK FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. 

First submerge the hooks in muriatic acid, using a 
wooden vat for same, as the acid would soon eat out 
an iron one. Allow the hooks to remain in the acid until 
the rust is all eaten off, which may take from ten to forty 
minutes, according to the amount of rust which has ac- 
cumulated on them. They are taken from this bath and 
submerged in " reduced " acid, which is muriatic acid 
reduced by putting in block zinc; keep adding zinc to the 
acid until it stops boiling. When the zinc is first put in 



516 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

it boils very rapidly, and when the boiling ceases it is 
" reduced " acid. 

The hooks are taken from this mixture and hung up, 
and allowed to hang from twenty minutes to half an hour 
to be sure that the acid has all evaporated and the hooks 
are dry. After they have become thoroughly dried they 
are again immersed, this time in a bath of pure block 
tin melted in an iron vat set over a fire. 

The top of the vat should be skimmed every few min- 
utes before taking out the hooks, as quite an accumula- 
tion of discolored matter will arise on the top of the vat, 
and if the hooks are pulled up through it, it leaves a scum 
on them. 

Care should be taken that the tin is not too hot, for if 
it is the hooks will come out a yellow instead of a bright 
tin color. As soon as the tin is thoroughly melted, the 
fire should be covered with ashes, or banked in some way 
so as to keep the tin at about the same temperature. As 
many hooks may be put into the vat at one time as it will 
hold. 

When the hooks are taken out, care should be taken 
to keep them as nearly level as possible, for when the 
hooks are taken out, the tin is in a liquid form, and if al- 
lowed to tip either way, a '' drop " or rough place on 
the hook is developed. To avoid this use two pairs of 
tongs. 

As soon as the hooks are taken from the tinning ket- 
tle they are put into a cold solution consisting of about 
one gill of muriatic acid to half a barrel of water. When 
the hooks are cold they are hung up. For tinning use a 
kettle about 3 feet long, 12 inches deep and 14 inches 
wide, with a flange to rest on the sides of the brick wall, 
fire being built under it of wood or coal, but little heat 
is needed. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 517 

It is advisable to tin all of the hooks of the beef trucks 
in the same manner as above, the shanks of the beef being, 
kept clean more easily. 

THERMOMETERS. 

In packing house practice, as well as in many other 
industries, one oftentimes requires a knowledge of the 
three different thermometer scales used today, viz : Cen- 
tigrade, which is used almost altogether in laboratory 
work, Reaumur and Fahrenheit. It is always, to say the 
least, troublesome, unless the information is at hand, to 
convert one to the other. Much annoyance has been 
caused by the existence of these three different scales, 
especially on export business. In America and in the 
British Empire the Fahrenheit scale is used almost ex- 
clusively. The Reaumur scale prevails in Grermany. The 
Centigrade (or Celsius) scale is used almost exclusively 
in France and generally wherever the metric system of 
weights and measures is followed, and in all except 
English-speaking countries it is used to some extent in 
making scientific calculations. 

The Centigrade scale includes between its degree 
(freezing point of water) and 100 degrees (boiling point 
of water) all the temperatures generally met with in 
industrial activities. 

The Fahrenheit scale is convenient on account of its 
short degrees, there being 180 between the freezing point 
of water (32 degrees) and its boiling point (212 degrees), 
thus allowing more -minute calculations without the use 
of fractions. Its low zero point makes it possible in tem- 
perate climates to dispense largely with the minus sign. 

The Reaumur scale divides the space between the 
freezing and boiling points of water into 80 instead of 
100 degrees, as in the Centigrade system. 



518 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



COMPAEISONS OF THERMOMETER SCALES. 

The following table shows the relative indications of the Celsius or Centigrade, 
Fahrenheit and Reaumur thermometer scales. In the United States and England the 
Fahrenheit scale is generally used; in France and in all scientific investigations and treat- 
ises, the Celsius scale is uniformly used; and in Germany the Reaumur scale is the one 
generally adopted. 



C. 


F. 


R. 


C. 


F. 


R. 


C. 


F. 


R. 


+ 100° 


+ 212.0° 


+ 80.0° 


+ 53° 


+ 127.4° 


+ 42.4° 


+ 6° 


+ 42.8° 


+ 4.8° 


99 


210.2 


79.2 


52 


125.6 


41.6 


5 


41.0 


4.0 


98 


208.4 


78.4 


51 


123.8 


40.8 


4 


39.2 


3.2 


97 


206.6 


77.6 


50 


122.0 


40.0 


3 


37.4 


2.4 


96 


204.8 


76.8 


49 


120.2 


39.2 


2 


35.6 


1.6 


95 


203.0 


76.0 


48 


118.4 


38.4 


1 


33.8 


0.8 


94 


201.2 


75.2 


47 


116.6 


37.6 


Zero 


32.0 


Zero 


93 


199.4 


74.4 


46 


11.4.8 


36.8 


— 1 


30.2 


— 0.8 


92 


197.6 


73.6 


45 


113.0 


36.0 


2 


28.4 


1.6 


91 


195.8 


72.8 


44 


111.2 


35.2 


3 


26.6 


2.4 


90 


194.0 


72.0 


43 


109.4 


34.4 


4 


24.8 


3.2 


89 


192.2 


71.2 


42 


107.6 


33.6 


5 


23.0 


4.0 


88 


190.4 


70.4 


41 


105.8 


32.8 


6 


21.2 


4.8 


87 


188.6 


69.6 


40 


104.0 


32.0 


7 


19.4 


5.6 


86 


186.8 


68.8 


39 


102.2 


31.2 


8 


17.6 


6.4 


85 


185.0 


68. 


38 


100.4 


30.4 


9 


15.8 


7.2 


84 


183.2 


67.2 


37 


98.6 


29.6 


10 


14.0 


8.0 


83 


181.4 


66.4 


36 


96.8 


28.8 


11 


12.2 


8.8 


82 


179.6 


65.6 


35 


95.0 


28.0 


12 


10.4 


9.6 


81 


177.8 


64.8 


34 


93.2 


27.2 


13 


8.6 


10.4 


80 


176.0 


64.0 


33 


91.4 


26.4 


14 


6.8 


11.2 


79 


174.2 


63.2 


32 


89.6 


25.6 


15 


5.0 


12.0 


78 


172.4 


62.4 


31 


87.8 


24.8 


16 


3.2 


12.8 


77 


170.6 


61.6 


30 


86.0 


24.0 


17 


1.4 


13.6 


76 


168.8 


60.8 


29 


84.2 


23.2 


18 


— 0.4 


14.4 


75 


167.0 


60.0 


28 


82.4 


22.4 


19 


2.2 


15.2 


74 


165.2 


59.2 


27 


80.6 


21.6 


20 


4.0 


16.0 


73 


163.4 


58.4 


26 


78.8 


20.8 


21 


5.8 


16.8 


72 


161.6 


57.6 


25 


77.0 


20.0 


22 


7.6 


17.6 


71 


159.8 


56.8 


24 


75.2 


19.2 


23 


9.4 


18.4 


70 


158.0 


56.0 


23 


73.4 


18.4 


24 


11.2 


19.2 


69 


156.2 


55.2 


22 


71.6 


17.6 


25 


13.0 


20.0 


68 


154.4 


54.4 


21 


69.8 


16.8 


26 


14.8 


20.8 


67 


152.6 


53.6 


20 


68.0 


16.0 


27 


16.6 


21.6 


66 


150.8 


52.8 


19 


66.2 


15.2 


28 


18.4 


22.4 


65 


149.0 


52.0 


18 


64.4 


14.4 


29 


20.2 


23.2 


64 


147.2 


51.2 


17 


62.6 


13.6 


30 


22.0 


24.0 


63 


145.4 


50.4 


16 


60.8 


12.8 


31 


23.8 


24.8 


62 


143.5 


49.6 


15 


59.0 


12.0 


32 


25.6 


25.6 


61 


141.8 


48.8 


14 


57.2 


11.2 


33 


27.4 


26.4 


60 


140.0 


48.0 


13 


55.4 


10.4 


34 


29.2 


27.2 


59 


138.2 


47.2 


12 


53.6 


9.6 


35 


31.0 


28.0 


58 


136.4 


46.4 


11 


51.8 


8.8 


36 


32.8 


28.8 


57 


134.3 


45.6 


10 


50.0 


8.0 


37 


34.6 


29.6 


56 


132.8 


44.8 


9 


48.2 


7.2 


38 


36.4 


30.4 


55 


131.0 


44.0 


8 


46.4 


6.4 


39 


38.2 


31.2 


54 


129.2 


43.2 


7 


44.6 


5.8 


40 


40.0 


32.0 



CONVERSION OF THERMOMETER DEGREES. 

°0 to °R, multiply b}' 4 and divide by 5. 

°C to °F, multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. 

°R to °C, multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 

°R to °F, multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. 

°F to °R, first subtract 32, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. 

°F to °C, first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 519 

WIRE OR BRINE PIPE COVERING. 

A formula for a compound such as is used by elec- 
tricians for covering wire work, as well as galvanized iron 
brine pipe connections where rubber hose is used, and also 
for various other purposes, is made as follows : 

Stockholm tar 5 lbs. 

Rosin 6 lbs. 

Gutta percha chips 9 lbs. 

The above is put over a fire and melted. After it is 
fully melted and mixed together and sufficiently cooled to 
handle, it is taken in small handfulls and put into water 
to chill. It is then rolled into sticks and used in this form 
for the above mentioned work. "While a like material can 
be purchased, it is very much more expensive and does 
not do the work any better than the above preparation. 

DISPOSITION OF PAUNCH MANURE. 

It is a trade rule that all live stock must be fed and 
watered before being offered for sale, consequently when 
cattle are killed the day they are bought the stomach is 
comparatively full and in many localities it is a serious 
problem to know what to do with the paunch contents. It 
is valueless as a fertilizer, simply being masticated hay 
and water. Where packing hou^ses are located on rivers, 
it is easily disposed of by letting it flush through the sew- 
ers. Where this can not be done the disposition of it is 
a serious problem. The most approved method, up to 
date, is to press it and burn it. A machine known as the 
" extractor " is manufactured by V. D. Anderson & 
Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, which is the only device made, out- 
side of a hydraulic press, which works satisfactorily, and 
as pressing it by a hydraulic press is very expensive the 
' ' extractor ' ' is generally used. This manure being prop- 
erly pressed and mixed with screenings or very fine coal 
has a heat unit value. A careful perusal of the follow- 
ing test will show the comparative results of mixing ma- 



520 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

nure with coal and burning the coal separately. This is not 
submitted with a view to recommending the purchase of 
this kind of material as fuel, but instead, to show that a 
refuse which is extremely hard to dispose of in some cases 
can be disposed of in this manner and a small revenue 
from same may thereby be obtained ; whereas, if it is nec- 
essary to load it into cars and switch it to some vege- 
table district it would be extremely expensive, and be- 
sides, the product has no value as a fertilizer. 

TESTS TO DETEKMIIS^E VALUE OF PAUNCH MANURE AS FUEL. 

Same kind of coal (screenings) used in both tests. 
Furnace, 7 x 12 feet : 

BOILER TEST NO. 1. 

Diameter of boiler shell, inches 66 

Length of shell, feet 18 

Number of tubes 187 

Diameter of tubes, inches 4 

Heating surface, square feet 4,000 

Grate surface, square feet 84 

Ratio heating to grate surface, per cent 4.76 

Duration of test, hours 8 

Average steam pressure, pounds 144.7 

Average temperature of feed, in degrees Fahrenheit. 196 

Pounds of coal burned 22,800 

Per cent of moisture 9 

Pounds of refuse 2,938 

Pounds of combustible 17,810 

Per cent of ashes 12.8 

Coal burned per square foot grate per hour 34 

Total water evaporated, pounds 149,850 

"Water evaporated per hour, pounds 18,731 

Water evaporated per square foot heating surface 

per hour, pounds 4.68 

Water evaporated per pound coal, actual conditions, 

pounds 6.57 

Water evaporated per pound coal from and at 212° F. 

pounds 7.01 

Water evaporated per pound combustible, actual con- 
ditions, pounds 8.35 

Water evaporated per pound combustible, from and 

at 212°, pounds 8.90 

Rated horsepower 400 

Horsepower from 196 feed and 144.7 pounds pressure 579 

Per cent above rated capacity 44.7 

Temperature flue gases, in degrees Fahrenheit 548 

Force of draft in inches of water .8 

Cost per thousand pounds of water .0837 

Cost per horsepower per hour .0029 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 521 

BOILER TEST NO. 2. 

Furnace of same dimensions, heating surface, grate 
surface, etc., as in test No. 1. Same kind of screenings 
used with paunch manure. 

Duration of test, hours 8 

Average steam pressure, pounds 140 

Average temperature of feed, in degrees Fahrenheit. 199 

Pounds of coal burned 17,700 

Pounds of paunch manure burned 5,538 

Per cent of moisture 9 

Pounds of refuse 3,224 

Per cent of ashes 13.8 

Coal burned per square foot grate per hour 26.3 

Manure burned per square foot grate per hour. ... 8.2 

Total water evaporated, pounds 136,500 

Water evaporated per hour, pounds 17,062 

Water evaporated per square foot heating surface 

per hour, pounds 4.28 

Water evaporated per pound manure, actual condi- 
tions, pounds 3.6 

Water evaporated per pound manure from and at 

212° F., pounds 3.8 

Rated horsepower 400 

Horsepower from 199 feed and 140 pounds pressure. 524 

Per cent above rated capacity 31 

Temperature flue gases, in degrees Fahrenheit 540 

Force of draft, in inches of water .8 

Cost per horsepower per hour, taken as $0.0837. Paunch manure 
is worth $0.60 per ton. 

FATTEl^ING CHICKEN'S. 

Killing and handling of poultry has become a very 
large factor in the packing business at all points where 
meat packing is done on an extensive scale. It has always 
been a business that commanded a great deal of at- 
tention and it has been done quite generally, although it 
is only within recent years that it has jDcen developed to 
large proportions. 

It is not intended to go into details of the poultry busi- 
ness as this is a subject so many-sided that it would be 
impossible to do it justice within the limits of this vol- 
ume. The feeding of chickens has become a modern in- 
dustry and is certainly an interesting subject. 

Anybody in the poultry business soon discovers, after 
buying live chickens promiscuously, that they have a 



522 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

'^ tail end " which is very undesirable on account of be- 
ing light weight and poor. In buying poultry in large 
quantities a great many of these birds are brought to- 
gether and they can, if handled properly, be fattened rap- 
idly as follows : 

The chickens are put into coops 24 inches square and 
11 inches deep, six birds to the coop. These coops have 
galvanized iron bottoms, which can be slipped out and 
washed in order to keep them clean, and are provided 
with a drinking cup. The coops are stacked up, one upon 
another, in a shed consisting, for summer use, of merely 
a roof to keep off the rain, and which is open on four 
sides, the coops being piled up to the outer sides of the 
sheds. 

The shed is furnished with heavy canvas curtains on 
rolls painted black. When the chickens are to be fed, the 
curtains are rolled up, giving them daylight. They are 
given about one-half hour in which to eat, when the cur- 
tains are again dropped, leaving them in darkness. They 
should be fed about nine in the morning and again about 
five in the afternoon. 

The feed consists of seven parts of oatmeal, one part 
of raw tallow cut very fine and thoroughly mixed with 
the oatmeal, the whole mixture made into the consistency 
of dough with either skimmed or buttermilk. Chickens 
gain very rapidly on this food for twelve days, and at 
the expiration of this time, they must be taken out and 
killed, for if fed longer, they will begin to fall away and 
finally die. The chickens get no gravel, shells, etc., so 
necessary for the digestion of their ordinary food, and 
after a few days' feeding of this material their anatomy 
changes, the gizzard practically becoming useless. If the 
chickens were turned loose where they could get their 
customary food, they would soon die. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 523 

This is very much like the German method of stuffing 
geese, it having much the same effect upon them. The 
meat of chickens fed in this manner will be found to be 
more tender and more desirable than that of chickens 
fed under ordinary conditions. The following shows the 
result of feeding 11,674 spring chickens for eleven days : 

Purchased 11,674 springs, 28,185 pounds 

Fed weight 11,674 springs, 34,022 pounds 

Gain 5,837 pounds 

Cost of food $273.50 

Cost of labor 182.50 

Total $456.00 

Cost per pound of gain, $0,078. 

PAINT. 

The formula given below for making tire proof, rust 
proof and water proof paints in paste form to be sprayed 
on surfaces will be found both useful and economical. 
About packing houses and markets a great deal of paint 
is necessary in order to keep the place clean and tidy in 
appearance, and also to preserve the wood and iron. 
When it is necessary to go to the trade to purchase this 
article it is often expensive, and matters of this kind that 
should be attended to are often deferred on account of 
the excessive expense. A very cheap paint can be made 
from the following: 

CHEAP PAINT FORMULA. 

1 barrel lime $0.45 

10 pounds bolted whiting 10 

25 pounds fine salt .^ 10 

10 pounds plaster paris 10 

10 pounds glue 70 

3 pounds Altamann blue 30 

25 pounds crude paraffine 1.00 

Cost of material $2.75 

Labor 2.00 

Total .'.$4.75 • 



524 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The foregoing formula will make from 500 to 600 
pounds of paste color, or one barrel, and if thinned for 
spray will make about three barrels at a cost of less than 
one cent per pound. 

The color of this paint would necessarily be white. 
Any color can be produced that is desired by simply add- 
ing the coloring matter. This paint when mixed can be 
put on with a pump or brush, as desired, and makes a 
very satisfactory and inexpensive article. 

HEKTOGRAPH FILLER. 

In the office of any well regulated packing house much 
use is made of the hektograph for copying reports, orders 
and other miscellaneous work. The following formula 
for a hektograph filler is a very cheap one and gives very 
satisfactory results; the only expense being the pans, 
which cost but little and can be used for a long period : 

Good transparent glue 5 lbs. 

Water 6 lbs. 

Glycerine 12 lbs. 

This should be put into a tin pail and then set in an- 
other receptacle filled with hot water, holding it there 
until the glue is thoroughly dissolved. Pour this mix- 
ture into the hektograph pans, while hot, and allow it to 
cool. The hektograph is then ready for use. 

REFRIGERATOR CARS. 

No attempt will here be made to go into detail as to 
the various methods of building, equipping, insulating, 
etc., of refrigerator cars, as information of this kind can 
better be obtained from car builders, but the general care 
of the car for the handling of the fresh product is an 
item which is entitled to consideration. 

As fast as the cars are returned to the company, 
whenever possible, the doors should be opened and they 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 525 

should be thoroughly aired, as the car, especially in 
warm weather, is close and damp. Both doors should be 
opened so that a full circulation of air may result. After 
this the car should be thoroughly washed with hot water 
and soap and rinsed with cold water to keep it sweet 
and clean. It is then ready to be iced. 

ICING EEFRIGERATOR CARS. 

In icing the car it is customary to use from 7 to 15 
l)er cent of salt ; in extreme hot weather the latter amount 
is often used. The ice is put through a crusher, and 
this machine should be kept in perfect condition so that 
the ice may be thoroughly broken up. After the tank is 
about one-half full of ice the salt should be worked in. In 
filling the balance of the tank at least 50 per cent of the 
total amount of salt should be left on top, for 
when the salt has worked its way to the bottom of 
the tank it is of no further use as an aid to refrigera- 
tion. When the tanks are filled, if the main quantity of 
salt is in the middle, or bottom, of the tank, comparative- 
ly small results are obtained from it. The salt must be 
near the top of the tank, so tha|; as the ice is melted by 
the action of the salt and a brine is formed which seeps 
down through the balance of the ice, it will have a chance 
to melt all the ice possible before it gets to the bottom 
of the tank. In using this amount of s^lt, as the reader 
will understand, it is only done to hasten the melting of 
the ice, and thus produce a lower temperature within the 
car. 

In hot weather the car should be iced the day before 
it is to be loaded. The next morning the tank should be 
opened and after being thoroughly tamped, more ice 
should be put in, with about 7 per cent of salt. After 
the car is loaded, the tanks should again be filled to their 



526 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

maximum capacity before the car leaves the place. In 
all re-icings in hot weather use 7 per cent of salt. In 
cold weather when there is little or no heat around the 
car, and on the contrary the insulation of the car serves 
to keep the contents from freezing, rather than in protect- 
ing them from the heat, as in summer, the tanks will re- 
quire very little ice and salt; but in icing even under 
these conditions, 4 or 5 per cent of salt should be used 
at all times, as it will aid in keeping the material in the 
tanks from being frozen too solidly. The icing of cars 
in the winter time is of comparative^ little importance. 

CAisrisriis^G OF meats. 

Meat canning is a subject which need not here be 
treated in detail, as with very few exceptions the can- 
ning business is considered an independent one from that 
of the packing house proper, and is carried on profitably 
only on a very large scale, in this country especially. In 
South America and Australia where cattle and labor are 
cheaper, it has been carried on to a much larger extent. 

The practice consists of partiall}^ curing the meats in 
salt pickle, after which they are cooked and put into vari- 
ous sized cans. The cans are then subjected to exces- 
sive heat in retorts, after which the vents are soldered 
or are put through a vacuum process where the air is ex- 
pelled from the cans and the vents then closed, in each 
process, leaving the meat in a vacuum. As long as this 
vacuum is maintained there is no chance for decomposi- 
tion of the contents of the cans. 

The canning of meats makes it possible to dispose of 
a good many of the cheaper cuts of meat which if not 
handled in this waj^" would necessarily be of small value, 
although equally as nourishing and healthful as better 
grades of meat. In the cooking of the meats a great deal 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 527 

of the animal salts and juices is taken up by the cooking 
water and this water is afterward evaporated and used 
for beef extract. 

GLUE. 

Glue is an article made from many of the by-prod- 
ucts from slaughtered animals, but has comparatively lit- 
tle to do with the packing business proper. For this rea- 
son little more need be said in this connection than to 
point out the different products from the packing house 
from which glue can be made. 

In the cooking of the heads and feet a great deal of 
glutinous matter is left in the water, which when evap- 
orated produces a low grade of glue. The longer the 
bones are cooked the greater the yield of glue and the 
proportionately greater damage is done to the bones and, 
consequently, the manufacture of a strictly commercial 
hard bone and, at the same time, a large percentage of 
glue is an impossibility. There is, however, a happy JB|" 
medium at which heads and feet can be cooked and bones 
turned out in a satisfactory condition, at the same time 
producing a good yield of glue. 

There is, generally speaking, in the cooking of the 
heads and feet, from 5 to 8 cents worth of glue obtainable 
per head, cattle count, from the cooking water. The best 
glue water is obtained from the cooking of the feet, they 
being of a more gelatinous nature. The sinews which 
are removed from the feet of the cattle before the bones 
are cooked make a very high grade of glue, practically 
equal to hide glues. This material after being taken off 
the legs should be spread out and dry-salted as described 
heretofore, and when cured is sold under the head of 
sinew glue stock. A low grade of glue that is used for 
paper sizing, paper box finishing, etc., is made from 
pigs feet, but generally speaking the hind feet are not 



528 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

saved for pickled pigs feet, but instead are used, mostly, 
in the manufacture of glue. 

HIDE GLUE STOCK. 

In some instances hides are sold with the pates and 
the leggings cut off. This, however, is not a common 
practice. Wherever it is done the pate and leggings 
are known as hide glue stock, which is considered the 
best part of all the products from the animal carcass- 
for the purpose of glue manufacture. Suggestions in 
regard to the handling of glue stock are given under 
the head of " Bone Department " in Chapter VIII. 

CHEMICAL DEPAKTMENT. 

This is a department which in all of the large well 
regulated packing houses is considered very essential and 
the information obtained therefrom, in the saving and 
the turning into commercial value of the by-products, 
as well as in determining the value of the products al- 
ready produced, is turned to good account. Laboratories 
in the larger plants are fitted up for making exhaustive 
tests as to the values of the products as well as for ascer- 
taining the most practical methods for manufacturing, 
and many of the departments of the modern packing 
house had their origin in the chemical laboratory. 

It is also essential that the different products turned 
out from a packing house be analyzed weekly to deter- 
mine the results; for instance, the analyzing of blood 
and tankage. If there should be found to be a lack of 
the proper percentage of ammonia the matter should be 
looked up at once and corrected, and if caught in time 
would mean the saving of a great deal of money. Lard 
should be analyzed to determine the amount of free acid, 
hardness, etc. Tallow and grease should be analyzed 
for the same purpose as well as for showing the amount 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 529 

of impurities. The value of tallow and grease is based 
upon the hardness and free acid tests, as a tallow or 
grease which runs low in hardness or titre test and high 
in free fatty acids is necessarily of a lower value than 
if it ran high in titre tests and low in free fatty acid, 
the titre test determining the solidifying point of the 
greases and the free acid denoting the state of decompo- 
sition. 

Many useful tests are also made on food mixtures, 
such as soups, concentrated foods, etc., which are after- 
ward developed in their respective departments into ma- 
terials of commercial value. 

Small packing houses which from the restricted vol- 
ume of business done would not warrant the outlay nec- 
essary for maintaining a chemical department will cer- 
tainly find it to their advantage to consult chemists who 
are versed in this particular industry and a great deal 
of valuable information will thereby be obtained. There 
are many reputable chemists who make a specialty of 
looking after packing house work from a chemical stand- 
point. 

KOSHER KILLi^NG, 

This term designates the method of killing animals 
for the Jewish trade. The orthodox Jew of today abides 
by the same rules that were laid down m the old Mosaic 
laws for his ancestors. In many of the large cities this 
trade amounts to considerable, thousands of cattle being 
killed weekly in this particular way. The killer is known 
as the " shekter " and is appointed by the rabbi of the 
congregation. The duty of the '^ shekter " is to kill the 
animals by cutting their throats with a knife that is 
especiall}^ designed for this purpose and which is kept 
extremely sharp with a hone water-stone. 



530 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

The method of killing cattle is to put a sling or chain 
around one hind leg, lifting them otf the floor with hand 
or power machinery until the animal falls on one side. 
The head is next turned over, stretching the neck very 
tightly, then the ' ' shekter, ' ' or killer, with his knife cuts 
the throat, severing all the veins and arteries. The ani- 
mal is then allowed to bleed to death. During the course 
of dressing a careful inspection is made of the lungs by 
the same man and if they are found to be in a healthy 
'Condition, the animal is considered fit for food. If there 
is any adhesion to the ribs, or the lungs show any signs 
of discoloration, or disease, the meat is condemned and 
is known as *' trafer." According to the Mosaic law 
no meat can be eaten where the veins have not been re- 
moved, consequently only the fore quarter of the beef is 
consumed according to the orthodox belief, this consist- 
ing of five ribs of the fore quarter and the neck, which 
is known to the trade as Kosher chucks. The Kosher 
meat business is a trade that is little known of in America 
outside of the larger cities. 

ITSrSPECTION BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 

In nearly all packing house plants throughout the 
countr}^ where business is done on a fairly large scale, 
government inspectors are maintained by the Federal 
government, their duties being to make a post mortem 
examination of all animals slaughtered. An ante-mor- 
tem examination is carried on at all of the large live 
stock centers. The animals after being inspected are 
tagged or stamped with a government stamp, showing 
that the animal was in a healthy condition when killed 
and is fit for human food. Carcasses which are found 
to be affected or unfit for food are condemned and put 
into the rendering tanks and disposed of for fertilizer. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 531 

the grease from such condemned animals being consid- 
ered unfit for foods of any kind. This inspection by the 
government is not compulsory and at any time that par- 
ties having the inspection do not live up to its rules the 
inspection is simply refused them, but it is absolutely 
necessary that each house have the inspection, for with- 
out the stamp the meat is not as salable; furtherfore, 
it has been found that it is absolutely necessary that this 
inspection be maintained in order to meet competition. 
It is a great safeguard to the public health, and while it 
represents hundreds of thousands of dollars a year loss 
for animals which are condemned, none of the large 
packers would feel that they could do without this gov- 
ernment supervision of their products. 

BKAIsTCH HOUSES. 

The advent of the centralized killing houses and the 
refrigerator car for transportation brought into exist- 
ence the branch house. In all large cities of the United 
States may be seen branch houses of the large packing 
firms, these houses being fitted up in various degrees of 
elegance, and in all cases in a copipact and practical man- 
ner for the handling of the business at point of loca- 
tion. The fresh meats v/hen received are immediately 
run into coolers which are cooled either by artificial re- 
frigeration or by ice and they are ther^ offered for sale 
to the dealers who'ieome to look for their supplies. The 
managers know the qualities of meats demanded by their 
different customers and aim to have a variety of meats 
at all times for sale. One of the secrets of success of 
the concentration of the packing business, as seen to- 
day, is the fact that a careful study is continually being 
made of the quality and grades of meat which are in 
demand at different points. For instance, heayy beef 



532 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 




MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 533 

which would be salable in some places might be a drug 
on the market at other points and sell at an absolute loss, 
w^hereas a lighter grade of beef may be in demand at 
one point and practically unsalable at others. Hence 
a careful watch of the requirements of each locality is 
necessary in order to see that the grades and qualities 
demanded at particular points are obtainable. 



534 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 



CHx\PTER XXV. 
DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING, 

DIVISIOX OF LABOR. 

The large packing house plants are invariably oper- 
ated on a departmental basis, so that at the end of the 
month, or year (generally figuring on thirteen periods 
to the year), a balance can be drawn off showing the 
profit and loss of each department. There is a great ad- 
vantage in handling a large business in this manner, for 
it is probable that while in the aggregate the house is 
making money, there might be departments that are los- 
ing money continuoush" without being detected unless 
each one is put on an individual basis. The raw material 
used is all transferred from one department to anotlier 
and an account turned into the office on the regular trans- 
fer slips. At the end of each period, the office man- 
ager, or those in charge, put a price on all the different 
products transferred from one department to another, 
generally using the market price which could be ob- 
tained if sold to outsiders. This forms a basis of the 
charge for the raw material in different departments and 
is credited to the department from which it is received. 

The next important feature is the division of labor, 
so that each department may know just where expense 
starts and stops and any work that is done by one de- 
partment for another is credited or debited by labor 
transfer slips which are turned into the timekeeper's 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 535 

office weekly, thereby keeping track of the proper charges 
for the labor in each department. A regular charge is 
also made for a proportionate part, in each department, 
of the power, steam, electric lights, etc., the same being 
based on the actual consumption ; also proportionate part 
of the administrative costs, which include supervision, 
interest, taxes, insurance and general miscellaneous ex- 
pense. 

Against these various debits of the department are 
credited the products from same, and at the end of every 
period, the actual results are evident as the raw prod- 
uct was charged to the department at the actual cost. 
If the department has lost money it is time for change 
of management or discontinuance of that particular 
branch, selling the raw material on the market. 

This is very valuable information and no well man- 
aged packing house is without it. The following pages 
give details of the general labor distribution, this being 
the principal expense in the department and also the one 
which is found to be the hardest to keep straight. If 
one or more plants are operated on a competitive basis 
it is essential that the labor distribution be exactly the 
same in order that an intelligent comparison may be 
made. 

DRTVIX^G AND YARDING CATTLE. 

\ 

This account includes a portion of the drivers em- 
ployed in driving cattle and carts — all the labor relative 
to the driving of cattle from the time purchased until 
same are delivered in the catch pen on the killing bed. 
The yard men at the plant are carried on the beef-beds 
pay roll and 90 per cent of the men's time, weighing, 
tending and yarding, is charged against cattle drivers, 
also half of the men's time driving up to the catch pen; 



536 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

the balance of their time being pro-rated as noted fur- 
ther on under head of " Sheep and Hog Drivers." 

CATTLE SLAUGHTERING, 

This department takes the cattle as delivered by the 
yard men into the catch pen, the charges including half 
of one of the yard men's time, and from this point doing 
all necessary work until cattle are set on the rail in the 
cooler. 

This department also trucks caul fat and delivers to 
the chute leading to the tallow floor, the tails to the cool- 
ers and truck refuse to tank. The last item will be 
charged by labor transfers from the tallow trimming de- 
partment. In figuring the daily killing expense, the 
actual killing cost starts from the catch pen and ends with 
the men pushing over, after the cattle are hung off. 

The washing gang starts from this point and includes 
the labor until cattle reach the scale with the exception 
of a charge of one-half the man's time doing the scrib- 
ing, which half is charged to the ' ' hot line. ' ' The ' ' hot 
line ' ' then takes the cattle from the scale with the above 
exception and places them in the cooler, pulling the rags 
from the necks, wiping and setting them for chilling. 
'' Hot line " includes cost of scaler and boy stamping 
tags. 

TALLOW TRIMMING. 

This department takes plucks, paunches, pecks, reeds, 
livers and all miscellaneous fats as delivered to them 
through the chutes from the killing beds, trims same and 
delivers the products either to the tank house or oleo 
chill vats. As the livers are not sent down to the tal- 
low floor, the tallow trimming department's labor on 
these includes the trucking and trimming of same upon 
the killing floor till livers are hung in the cooler. 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 537 

HEAD BONIlSrG, 

This department takes the heads as delivered in the 
vat from the killing floor, tongueing, cheeking and trim- 
ming same, delivering the tongues to the tongue cooler 
and spreading on racks ; cheeks to the beef curing, brains 
to the offal department and bones to the bone house. 
"When cleaning calves heads and feet the labor on same 
is charged to the offal department. This department is 
charged its proportion of time from the tallow trim- 
ming department for scaler, also its proportion of time 
from casings department for foreman's time. The lips 
after being trimmed off are delivered to the man scald- 
ing and scraping same. 

BEEF CASIKGS. 

This department takes the sets as delivered by the 
killing floor doing all necessary fatting and cleaning on 
same. This account also includes the stripping and blow- 
ing of the weasands, trimming and blowing of the blad- 
ders and hanging them in the dry room. After the blad- 
ders and weasands are dry, taking them from the dry- 
ing room, trimming and packing them is charged to 
'' casing, packing and loading' account." The salting, 
packing and loading of casings are carried separately 
on expense sheet. All fats in this department are trucked 
away and delivered to the fat vats by the tallow trim- 
ming department. * 

COOLER AND LOADING. 

This department takes the carcasses, tagging, weigh- 
ing and loading same for shipment. It also loads the 
mutton, veal and part of the heavier cutting room prod- 
ucts. Their pay roll is sub-divided on the percentage of 
weights handled for each of the above departments, mut- 
ton being increased threefold to place it on the same 
basis as beef. 



538 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

This department also includes the pulling of skew- 
ers, trimming off necks, skirts and drops after cattle are 
chilled, and delivering these products to the trimming 
room. They also do all necessary sacking of cattle. All 
deliveries of cattle to be made to the wholesale market 
are made by this department. The foreman furnishes a 
weekly report to the timekeeper's office showing the 
weights of cutting room products loaded, also the num- 
ber of cattle sacked and the total cost of same. 

HIDE CELLAE. 

This department is sub-divided into " green hides," 
'' cured hides," and " hide loading." The labor on 
green hides starts with the inspection on the killing beds 
(but does not include the labor of trucking and spread- 
ing them). It includes all labor after the hides are de- 
livered to the cellar until salted and placed in packs. 
Any unloading of salt for this department is charged 
to green hide account. Cured hides includes the labor of 
taking up the hides and placing them in bundles on the 
floor, ready for the loading gang. Loading of hides from 
this point and placing them in car does not include cost 
of weighing for shipment. The cost of inspecting and 
handling of pelts, which is done by this department, is 
charged to ^' sheep pelt putting down account," any 
unloading of sheep pelts being charged to " sheep pelt 
loading account." Where salt is unloaded for use in 
salting pelts, the labor on same will be charged to ' ' sheep 
pelt putting down account." This department salts sin- 
ews and charges the labor on same against the bone 
house, also all labor of loading same is charged against 
^' bone house loading account." A weekly report is fur- 
nished by this department to the timekeeper's office show- 
ing the number of hides and pelts loaded. 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 539 

TANK HOUSE. 

This department is sub-divided into four accounts, 
viz. : ' ' Tank house cooking and pressing, " ' ' tank house 
loading," '^ catch basin " and " prime steam lard." 

All other labor, such as loading tank cars, tiercing 
and pumping lard, is charged to prime steam lard ac- 
count, on the actual cost of same. 

A weekly transfer is made against '' catch basin," 
for the men employed in this class of work. Any depart- 
ment, however, that received credits for the products 
skimmed from the catch basin must stand the labor. All 
loading of tallow is charged to tank house loading ac- 
count. All loading of prime steam lard in tierces or 
tanks is charged to prime steam lard account. The labor 
of cooking and pressing of blood is transferred weekly 
against fertilizer account. All washing of tank cars is 
transferred weekly against car cleaning account. After 
the above charges have been credited to tank house pay- 
roll the residue is the tank house cooking and preserving 
account which includes all labor, from the time prod- 
ucts going into the fat tanks or hog grease tank are de- 
livered to the tank house floor, until tallows and grease 
are run off and tierced and tankage is pressed and de- 
livered to fertilizer. The prime steam lard account ends 
with the running-off and tiercing or pumping to the re- 
finery of the prime steam lard and does not include any 
labor on the tankage from these products. A weekly re- 
port is sent to the- timekeeper's office of the production 
of prime steam lard up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. 

BONE HOUSE. 

To this department is charged a sub-division from 
the tank house pay roll for the foreman's time. It handles 
all bone products from time delivered to it by the 



540 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

killing floor until same are placed in the bins for stor- 
age, ail loading being charged to '' bone house loading 
account." As stated under hide cellar account the bone 
house is charged with the labor of salting and loading 
of sinews. 

This department manufactures all oils and tallows 
produced from the bones, and any scraps which are 
found are delivered to the tank house. 

FEKTILIZER. 

This account is sub-divided to " fertilizer cooking, 
pressing and drying," ^' fertilizer grinding and sack- 
ing," and '' fertilizer loading." A charge made from 
the tank house for their portion of the foreman's time, 
also for the cooking and pressing of blood, is carried in 
the fertilizer cooking, pressing and drying account. To 
this account is charged the cost of taking the blood from 
the vats on the killing floor, cooking, pressing, drying 
and delivering same to the storage; also of the tankage 
from the tank house, drying and storing same. 

To grinding and sacking account is charged all cost 
of taking the blood and tankage from the storage room 
and of grinding and sacking same for shipment. All 
labor for loading these products is charged to fertilizer 
loading account. 

The foreman of this department furnishes a weekly 
report to the timekeeper's office, showing the tons of 
tankage and blood cooked, pressed and dried, up to 5 :30 
p. m. each Saturday, also at the same time the tons of 
tankage and blood ground and sacked. 

OLEO MELTING. 

The labor of this department starts when the fats are 
delivered into the chilling vats and includes the chilling 
of same and all labor from there until the oleo stock is 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 541 

set on the seeding floor. This department includes the 
pressing of scrap and the manufactui'e of laundry stock. 

OLEO PRESSES. 

The men in this department take the stock from the 
seeding floor, pressing and tiercing the oil and stearine, 
and place same in storage. The clerk's time carried in 
this account is charged in full to oleo presses, but three- 
quarters of the foreman's time is charged against oleo 
melters. This department turns in to the time keeper's 
office, a weekly report showing the number of tierces of 
oil and stearine packed from the amount pressed, up to 
5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. There is a transfer made for 
tiercing the oleo stock against oleo melters. 

OIL HOUSE LOADING. 

This includes the charges for labor in loading of oil 
house products, or delivery of oil or stearine to the lard 
refinery. 

TONGUES. 

This department includes all labor on trimming, pack- 
ing, curing and loading of beef, and calf tongues. The 
labor of trimming sheep tongues and pig tongues, which 
is also done by this department, is charged respectively 
to '^ sheep offal " and " hog heads " departments. The 
trimming of tongue trimmings and delivery of the meats 
to the cellar and fats to the oil house and tank house 
are 'made by the tongue department. 

BEEF TEIMMING. 

This department takes the necks, drops and skirts 
as delivered by the cooler and loading department and 
delivers the products either for shipment or to the next 
department handling same. It does not include the 
trimming of cutting room products. 



542 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

BEEF TRIMMING LOADING. 

Includes the labor of loading beef drops or the trnn- 
ming from the necks, and Is a pro-rated charge from 
the trnnming loading account. 

CLEANING CAES. 

This work being done by the labor gang, the labor is 
charged by direct transfer for the actual cost of cleaning 
cars and their equipments. This department reports 
to the time keeper's office each week the number of cars 
cleaned. 

ICING OAKS. 

This department includes all labor of icing cars and 
hooking up same for beef loading. The cleaning of re- 
frigerator boxes being done by this department, a trans- 
fer is made against the departments using same on the 
basis obtained from the relative number of boxes used 
in each department. 

The repairing and cleaning of liver racks are charged 
weekly against the '' miscellaneous mechanical account." 
This department furnishes a report to the time keep- 
er's office each week of the number of cars iced. 

CALF KILLING. 

A direct transfer is made from the sheep killing de- 
partment against '' calf killing " for the actual labor of 
killing and skinning calves. The foreman of this de- 
partment reports weekly to the time keeper's office the 
number of calves killed and skinned. 

CALF CHEEKING. 

Calf cheeking includes the labor of saving tongues, 
calf cheeks and brains, and of delivering same to the 
offal cooler, tongue cooler or beef curing department. 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 543 

CALF COOLER AND LOADING. 

This charge is made, as previously stated, in the beef 
cooler loading account on a percentage division of the 
pounds of veal loaded pro rata to the pounds of beef 
loaded. 

SHEEP DEIVING AND YARDING. 

This department takes the sheep after buying and 
delivers them to the chute leading up to the killing floors. 
Account is kept by a direct transfer covering the actual 
number of men employed in driving sheep from the stock 
yards. There is also a charge against the account of 
4 per cent of the men's time, due to weighing and yard- 
ing ; charge being made by transfer from the beef beds. 

SHEEP KILLING. 

The labor in this department starts when the sheep 
are placed in the chutes and includes the dressing, weigh- 
ing and setting of same on the rails in the cooler for 
chilling. When not saving sheep casings, this account 
also includes the labor of stripping the fats from the cas- 
ings and the delivery of all fats to the oleo chill vats. 

SHEEP OFFAL. 

This includes the trimming Qf plucks and the delivery 
of same hung up in the offal cooler; also the saving of 
brains and delivery of same to the offal cooler. When 
not saving sheep plucks, this account will cover the trim- 
ming of the plucks and delivery of t|ie products from 
there to the next department using same. Also the sav- 
ing of tongues and delivery to tongue cooler. 

SHEEP PELTS. 

This charge is m.ade by labor transfer from the ' ' hide 
cellar " as previously stated. 

SHEEP PELT LOADING. 

Includes all labor of loading of sheep pelts; also the 
bundling of them if same are to be shipped in bundles. 



544 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

SHEEP TONGUES. 

This account is covered by direct transfer from the 
beef curing department for the curing and packing of 
sheep tongues. 

SHEEP CASINGS. 

When the set of casings is delivered to this depart- 
ment the labor charge starts from there and includes 
pulling and stripping of the casings and turning and 
sliming of the bungs ; also, when casings are cleaned and 
packed, all cleaning and packing of same. When not 
saving sheep casings all labor of stripping out the fats, 
and tanking of them, is charged to ' ' sheep killing. ' ' 

OLEO MELTERS SHEEP. 

This charge is covered by direct transfer made from 
the " oleo melters beef account " on the ratio of the 
pounds of sheei3 fats sent to the oil house. 

OLEO PRESSES SHEEP. 

This account is covered by direct transfer from 
^' oleo presses, beef account " on the percentage estab- 
lished by the proportion of sheep fats going to the oil 
house. 

COOLER AND LOADING MUTTON, 

As previously stated in '' cooler and loading," mut- 
ton is a sub-division made on the basis of pounds of 
mutton loaded, figuring this weight threefold in order 
to place it on the same basis as loading of cattle. 

HOG DRIVING AND YARDING. 

This department, which takes the hogs after pur- 
chase, is charged, by transfer, with the actual labor of 
men employed in driving from stock yards to the plant, 
also 6 per cent of the scale and yard master's time at 
the plant, which transfers are made from the killing 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 545 

beds; also a transfer from the stable for man driving 
crip cart. Delivery is made by this department into the 
catch pen at the killing floor. A transfer is also made 
from the hog killing department for the cost of yard- 
ing and driving onto the killing floor. 

KILLING PACKER HOGS. 

The labor in this department starts at the time hogs 
are driven into the catch pen and includes all labor from 
there on until hogs are delivered and set on rails in the 
cooler ; leaf lard is delivered to leaf cooler and hung up ; 
plucks, kidneys and chitterlings are delivered to otfal 
cooler and hung up or spread; heads are delivered in 
chute leading to hog head gang; casings are delivered 
into conveyor and hog hair is delivered into chute. The 
man attending to hog scraper is not included in this pay 
roll. 

KILLING SHIPPER HOGS. 

The rule that applies to killing packers will also ap- 
ply to this account. Transfer is made against ' ' shipper 
account " from '^ packer account " for the cost of kill- 
ing and dressing same. ^ 

HOG CUTTING. 

The labor in this department starts with taking the 
chilled hogs from the cooler, cutting them and deliver- 
ing the cut meats to the loin cooler cellars, and all fats 
and trimmings to the pork trimming department. 

FRESH PORK PACKING, 

This department takes tlie cuts as delivered to them 
by hog cutting department, weighing, packing, mark- 
ing and checking same for shipment. All loading done 
by this gang is charged to the " fresh pork trimming 
loading account." The foreman reports to the time- 
keeper's office the number of pounds packed each week. 



546 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

TKIMMING LOADIXG PORK. 

This account is either a direct transfer for the " load- 
ing fresh pork products " or else a sub-division of the 
regular " trimming loading account," on the ratio of 
pounds of fresh jjork loaded. 

PORK TRIMMHSTG ROOM. 

This department takes the fats as delivered to them 
by the hog cutting gang, attends to the trimming and 
assorting of same, delivering the lean trimmings to the 
sausage or curing departments, and the bones or fat to 
the prime steam lard tanks. The foreman of this de- 
partment furnishes a weekly report to the timekeeper's 
office of the number of pounds of pork trimmed. 

DRY SALT PORK CURHSTG. 

All meats handled by this department are delivered 
on its floor by the hog cutting gang, from which point 
the labor starts and includes all curing, packing and 
loading of dry salt meats. To cover this labor there is 
a direct transfer from the sweet pickled pork curing 
department. The foreman of this department reports 
the number of pounds of meat received from the cutting 
floor and from outside parties ; also all shipments and 
deliveries to smoke house or other departments, thus 
showing the total pounds handled. This report is to be 
turned into the timekeeper's office weekly, to include up 
to 5 :30 p. m. Saturday. 

SWEET PICKI.ED PORK CURING. 

Labor in this department starts after a delivery of 
the products by the cutting room and includes the pack- 
ing, curing, shipping or delivery to the smoke house or 
department using such products. The foreman and stock 
clerk's salary is charged one-third to " dry salt pork 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 547 

curing accounts." A transfer is also made from this 
department against " barrel pork account " to cover all 
labor of packing, curing and loading of barrel pork prod- 
ucts. A transfer is made against " pigs feet account " 
for the curing and handling of pigs feet. The foreman 
of this department reports weekly, to the timekeeper's 
office, the number of pounds of meat received from the 
cutting floor or from outside parties ; also the amount of 
shipment or deliveries to smoke house and other depart- 
ments of loose sweet pickled productions, thus showing 
the total weight handled by the sweet pickled pork cur- 
ing department. He also reports actual weight of the 
barrel pork packed. 

PEIME STEAM LAED. 

This account was explained under head of " Tank 
House. ' ' 

PIGS FEET. 

Labor in pigs feet department starts with the receipt 
of the rough feet from the cutting floor, scalding, toeing 
and shaving same, also curing, packing and loading. The 
cost of scalding, shaving and packing is covered by the 
regular " pigs feet pay roll." 'The cost of curing, by 
transfer from " sweet pickled pork curing " department 
and the cost of loading by transfer from " trimming 
loading " department. The foreman of this department 
reports weekly, the number of pigs feet saved. 

PIGS TOISTGUES. 

This account covers only the curing, packing and 
loading of tongues and is covered by transfer from the 
beef curing department. 

IIOG HEADS. 

Labor in this department starts when the heads are 
delivered by the killing department and includes the 



548 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

tongueing, trimming, cheeking, saving of brains, deliv- 
ery of fats and bone to the tanks, and delivery of all 
other products to the next department handling same. 
"When heads are saved for shipment and cleaned, both 
the product and the labor are charged to offal account. 

HOG CASING. 

This department starts with the delivery from the 
killing floor of a set of casings and includes pulling the 
small casing and cleaning same ; salting and packing be- 
ing a separate account. Pulling, salting, trimming and 
packing of the bungs is also a separate account. Load- 
ing is charged to each account respectively. Unloading 
of salt is charged to " hog casing, packing and loading 
account. ' ' 

HOG HAIE. 

This department takes the hair as delivered at the 
bottom of the chute, spreading same on the hair field, 
and sacking and loading same for shipment. 

SMOKE HOUSE. 

All departments make their deliveries to the smoke 
house by dumping their products into the soaking vats. 
The labor therefore starts from this point and includes 
all smoking, inspecting, packing and loading. There is, 
however, a sub-division termed " smoke house canvas- 
ing and whitewashing account," which covers the labor 
on the burlapping, or canvasing, or whitewashing prod- 
ucts. In making dummy hams or bacon this labor is 
charged to advertising account. The foreman of this 
department turns in weekly a report showing the total 
shipments, up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. 

SMOKE HOUSE CANVASING AND WHITEWASHING. 

This department takes the meats after being smoked 
and inspected, canvases or burlaps them and delivers 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 549 

tliem on racks to the drying room. From this point 
labor again reverts to the general smoke house account. 
The foreman of this department turns in a weekly report 
to the timekeeper's office, showing the number of pieces 
canvased or whitewashed. 

LARD EEFII^ERY, 

This is sub-divided to manufacturing or loading ac- 
counts. Manufacturing covers all labor pertaining to 
the manufacture of lards other than prime steam. They 
must go to the leaf cooler for their leaf lard and to the 
cutting floor for back fat or cutting fat. All other prod- 
ucts are delivered to their departments. Labor in this 
department ends after the lards have been packed and 
placed in storage. From this point it is considered the 
'' lard refinery loading account." All labor of loading 
and storing in cars is charged to that account. All un- 
loading of packages or materials to the lard refinery are 
charged to ' ^ lard refinery manufacturing account. ' ' Lard 
refinery will unload cotton seed oil or any other prod- 
ucts received from outside parties. The foreman of this 
department turns in a weekly report to the timekeeper's 
office at 5:30 p. m. each Saturday showing the amount 
of lard the refinery has produced. 

SAUSAGE ROOM MANUFACTURE. 

This department receives all products after their 
manufacture from other departments, with the excep- 
tion of blood, jowl fat and hog stomachs. It is under- 
stood that they are to call and get any jowls, catch any 
blood they may need, bring the hog stomachs from the 
killing floor and sliming them for their own use. This 
department ends with the delivery of the manufactured 
sausage to the packing room. Any unnecessary trim- 



550 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

ming due to the fact of the pork trimmings not coming 
in the proper manner are charged to the pork trimming 
account. Same also applies to beef products which are 
charged to beef trimming or beef cutting accounts, re- 
spectively. 

This department chops out the knuckles and packs 
them and transfers to the hog cutting department for 
chopping out the knuckles, and to the fresh pork packing 
account for the packing of same. The foreman of this 
department turns in a weekly report showing pounds 
produced. 

Labor of curing beef cheeks, sheep cheeks, weasand 
meat and beef head meat when cured in sausage room is 
charged to " beef curing." Labor on sheep hearts and 
pig hearts is charged to offal department when cured in 
sausage room and products transferred at the cured 
price. Labor of curing pork cheeks and hog head meats 
is charged to sweet pickle pork curing. 

BOILED HAM ACCOUNT. 

The labor in this department starts after the hams 
have been delivered and includes boning, trimming, tying 
and cooking same and delivery to the packing room. The 
foreman of this department turns in to the timekeeper's 
office a weekly report showing pounds of boiled hams 
produced. As this account is a sub-division of the saus- 
age room it is handled by a labor transfer from that de- 
partment. 

SAUSAGE PACKING AND LOADING ACCOUNT. 

This department being a sub-division of the sausage 
room, the labor on same is charged by a labor transfer 
from the sausage room. The labor includes the cost of 
packing and loading of sausage and boiled ham prod- 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 551 

"ucts. The foreman of this department turns in a week- 
ly report showing the total weight of his shipments. 

CUTTTXG ROOM. 

This department takes the carcasses where set oil the 
rail in the cooler, cuts up same, trims all fats and meat 
from them, and packs for shipment or delivery to freez- 
er (boxed or loose). All other meats are delivered to 
the curing department; fats and bones to the respective 
departments receiving same. All unloading done for 
this department is charged to '' cutting room loading 
account. ' ' 

FREEZER. 

This department takes all products, with the excep- 
tion of poultry, as delivered to them ; stores, freezes and 
ships out as ordered. They report, weekly, to the time- 
keeper's office, weight of products received and shipped. 
On poultry products all labor of handling in and out 
is charged by labor transfer against the poultry depart- 
ment. 

BEEF CURIXG. 

This department takes products as delivered to it, 
curing and loading same or delivering to next depart- 
ment. The cleaning of ox lips is charged to this depart- 
ment and transfer is made against the '' offal depart- 
ment " for any offal cured. Also against ^' beef tongue 
department " for curing, packing and loading beef 
tongues; also against ^' pig tongue department" for 
curing, packing ^nd loading pig tongues; also against 
^' sheep tongue department " for curing, packing and 
loading sheep tongues. Calf tongues are considered the 
same as beef tongues. 

All curing of pork products is transferred against 
the '' sweet pickled pork curing department." On this 



552 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

transfer it will be necessary to show the pounds of pork 
products handled. The foreman furnishes the timekeep- 
er's office with a weekly report showing the receipts, also 
all shipments and deliveries to other departments, thus 
showing the total number of pounds handled. 

'i OFFAL. 

After all products are delivered, hung up, when nec- 
essary, or spread on racks, the handling, packing or 
loading of same comprises the labor of this department. 
The cleaning of hog stomachs for canning room is 
charged against the offal department, also the cleaning 
of calves heads and feet. The trimming of sheep 
tongues and pig tongues, when done in this department, 
is charged respectively to '' sheep offal " and '' hog 
head " accounts. 

TRIPE, 

This department is sub-divided into the ^ ' tripe clean- 
ing " and " tripe packing and loading " accounts. The 
tripe cleaning account covers all labor from the time the 
tripe is delivered by the tallow trimming account until 
same have been cleaned and delivered or spread on racks 
in the offal cooler. From this point the account is ' ' tripe 
packing and loading " until shipped. 

This department makes all deliveries of their fats 
and scrap to the tank house. The foreman furnishes a 
weekly report showing the weight of tripe cleaned, being 
the net drained weight. 

MANUFACTURED ICE. 

This account starts with the filling of ice cans and in- 
cludes all labor until ice is placed in the storage room. 
The foreman of this department furnishes a weekly re- 



DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 553 

port to the timekeeper's office showing the tons of ice 
pulled. 

ICE LOADING ACCOIHSTT, 

This department takes the ice from the storage room 
and loads cars or wagons, as the case may be. All ice 
for use around the plant is to be called for by the parties 
requiring same. 

STABLE. 

This account includes all miscellaneous drivers and 
cart men. The time of the cart men being charged out 
by labor transfers, to the department benefited or to 
^' Yard Cleaning." 

YAED CLEANING. 

Yard cleaning is charged by weekly transfer from 
the stable account for all miscellaneous work on the carts 
and for hauling refuse about the plant. 

BOILEE EOOM. 

This department includes the unloading of coal, clean- 
ing of boilers, attending to the fires in same, and deliver- 
ing the ashes to the cars or carts, all done by the fire- 
men. 

ENGINE EOOM. 

There are two brine tenders carried on this pay roll 
whose time is charged direct to refrigeration account. 
Three men attend mo~tors and switch board, transferred 
10 per cent to '' electric light " and the balance to '^ pow- 
er " account. The residue of the engine room pay roll 
is transferred on the regular percentage basis, 69 per 
cent to refrigeration, 21 per cent to power, and 10 per 
cent to electric light accounts. 



554 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 

COOPERAGE. 

This department attends to the receiving and coop- 
ering of all new and second hand packages, also the 
washing of all second hand packages. No deliveries are 
made to the departments, but when men of this depart- 
ment are employed in outside work, for other depart- 
ments, such as heading up tierces, etc., a direct transfer 
is made for this labor. All second hand packages re- 
turned from customers are turned over to this depart- 
ment, re-coopered, washed and issued to departments 
using same. The foreman turns in to the timekeeper's 
office, weekly, an itemized report showing the packages 
which have been issued from the department, his ex- 
penses being figured on this report. 

MISCELLANEOUS ACCOUNT. 

This account is sub-divided by labor transfer at the 
end of each week to the following accounts : 

Watchmen. Shipping office. 

Fire marshals. Scalers. 

Superintendent's office. Storeroom. 

Time keepers. Railroad yard master. 

Each of the above accounts is charged with the actual 
number of men employed in that special line of duty. 



THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 555 



PACKING HOUSE MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES. 

The following is a list of the leading houses in Amer- 
ica manufacturing and dealing in machinery and sup- 
plies for packing houses and butchers: 

Allbright-Nell Co 4019 Wentwortli av., Chicago, 111. 

Bechstein & Co 100 Michigan st, Chicago, 111, 

Brecht Butchers Supply Co St. Louis, Mo. 

Cincinnati Butchers Supply Co Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Illinois Casing Co 131 Michigan st., Chicago, Hi. 

Berthold Levi & Co 232 Washington st, Chicago, 111. 

Mechanical Mfg. Co Union Stock Yards, Chicago, IlL. 

S. Oppenheimer & Co 440 Wabash av., Chicago, III. 

Wm. R. Perrin & Co .Loomis and 46th sts., Chicago, IlL 

M. Waixel & Co Fulton Market, Chicago, IlL 

Weir & Craig Mfg. Co 2421 Wallace St., Chicago, 111. 

Wolf, Sayer & Heller Fulton and Peoria sts., Chicago, 111. 



TOPICAL INDEX 557 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



Acidity of milk, test to determine 450 

Account, beef casings 537 

beef curing 551 

" beef trimming 541 

beef trimming loading 542 

boiled ham 550 

boiler room 553 

" bone house 539 

" cattle slaughtering • • 536 

calf killing 542 

" calf cooler and loading • • 543 

calf tagging 542 

" cleaning cars 542 

" cooler and loading , 537 

" cooler and loading mutton 544 

cooperage 554 

cutting room 551 

driving and yarding cattle 535 

" driving and yarding bogs 544 

dry salt pork curing 546 

engine room ^ 554 

fertilizer 540 

" freezer 551 

" fresh pork packing ....■• 545 

" head boning 537 

" hide cellar 538 

hog casing 548 

" hog cutting 545 

" hog hair 548 

" hog heads 547 

" ice loading , 553 

" icing cars .-. 542 

killer packer hogs 545 

" lard reiinery r 549 

" manufactured ice 552 

" miscellaneous 554 

offal 552 

" oil house loading 541 

" oleo melters, sheep 544 

" oleo melting 540 

oleo presses '. ^^1 



558 TOPICAL INDEX 

Account, oleo presses, sheep 544 

packing and loading sausage 550 

pig feet 547 

" pig tongues 547 

" pork trimming room 546 

prime steam lard 547 

sausage room manufacture 549 

" sheep casings 544 

" sheep driving and yarding 54;3 

" sheep killing 543 

sheep offal 543 

" sheep pelt loading 543 

" sheep pelts 543 

sheep tongues 544 

" smoke house 548 

smoke house canvasing and whitewashing 548 

stable 553 

" sweet pickle pork curing 546 

" tallow trimming 536 

" tank house 539 

tongues 541 

trimming loading pork 546 

tripe 552 

" yard cleaning 553 

Air circulation 54 

drying and smoking sausage 386 

Albumen from beef blood 492 

American short cut ham 292 

Ammonia from tankage 204 

Antwerp back cuts 327 

Apparatus, cattle hoisting , 81 

B 

Back, clear 284 

" cuts, Antwerp 327 

" pork 300 

Backing cattle 85 

Bag Bologna 363 

Barrel truck 512 

Beef after smoking, shrinkage on dried 343 

bladders, casings 181 

blood, albumen from 492 

" bruises, trimming of 88 

" bungs 180 

casings account 537 

cook water 471 

coolers 89 

" coolers, care of 91 

coolers, construction of 27 

" coolers, requirements of 65 

" coolers, temperature in 92 

" curing account 551 

cutting boxes 502 

extract 459 

fluid, formula for making 471 

fluid, machinery used in making 471 



TOPICAL INDEX 559 

Beef freezing 92 

hams, formula for cutting 221 

" hams, handling of 220 

hams, shrinkage on smolied dried 224 

hams, smolving test on 223 

hams, stripping 220 

hearts, extract from 470 

hearts, handling of 219 

in coolers, handling 95 

loading 9^ 

" loin 114 

middles, casings 180 

packing 99 

preservatives for packing fresh 346 

" rib Ill 

ribbing 97 

" roll 113 

skirt trimming 88 

smoking dried 342 

soak w^ater 471 

spreaders 82 

" tenderloin 112 

tongues 210 

" tongues, freezing 212 

trimming 96 

trimming bruises on 88 

trimmings 209 

trimmings account 541 

trimmings, preservative for 348 

trimmings loading account 542 

trimmings, pickle formula for - 225 

trimmings, pickling formula for 209 

trimmings, preservative for 348 

washing of 88 

weasands, casings ■ 181 

weighing 99 

yield in percentage on different Quts 114 

Belly, clear 285 

" pork 300 

Berlin ham 370 

Bladders, beef, casings 181 

Blood, albumen from beef 492 

for fertilizer, method of treating 491 

" for fertilizer, tests on y 492 



pump 
sausage 



.495 
.368 



settling pan for draining serum from 494 

Boiled ham ^ 316 

ham account 550 

Boiler room account 553 

Bologna, bag 363 

large 363 

round 363 

" sausage 359 

in oil 379 

in oil, packing 380 

" " smoking 362 

" " varnish for '-. 356 



560 TOPICAL INDEX 

Bologna, weasand 364 

Bone department, cattle 16G 

house account 539 

products 166 

saws 170 

-sour 93 

washing, revolving rack for 172 

Boneless ham 377 

pig feet 370 

pork loins, rolled 318 

Bones 162 

cattle jaw 170 

Boxes, dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing 505 

for beef cutting 502 

" for canning department 498 

" for freezer 502 

for lard refinery 501 

" for offal 502 

" for smoked meat 502 

" fresh pork packing 503 

pork packing - 498 

" refrigerator 508 

" sausage packing 500 

" specifications for 497 

Boyd cream ripener 445 

Branch houses 531 

Braunschweiger sausage 398 

Breast sawing, cattle 81 

Brine circulation, " curtain " system for 57 

pipe covering 519 

" drip pan for , 70 

" " galvanized iron 63 

" " hangers 69 

" " method for supporting 70 

Brisket pork rib 299 

Bristles, hog . . . . , 482 

Brush, fountain 89 

Buildings, relative location of 34 

Bung gut skins, casings 183 

Bungs, beef, casings 180 

" Butric " for making butterine, Keith's 452 

Butt brands, hides 129 

sirloin 109 

Butter factory, cost of equipment for process 468 

machinery required for making process 465 

" milk and cream for process 467 

process 461 

" renovated 464 

" worker, Simplex 457 

Butterine, constituents of high grade 459 

constituents of low grade 454 

cost of 462 

factory, cost of equipment for 461 

" " churn used in 446 

" " modern 443 

" formulas for making 457, 461 

" grading of 447 

" handling of milk in making 444 



TOPICAL INDEX 561 

Butterine, Hansen's " Lactic " for making 452 

Keitla's " Butric " for making 452 

" manufacture of 442 

" milk and cream for 449 

" preparatory " starter " for 452 

" slirinkage of 462 

" "starter" for making 448 

" testing milk fcr 448 



Calf cooler and loading account 543 

killing account 542 

tagging account 542 

California hams 314 

" shoulders 315 

Calking device 510 

Canning department boxes 498 

of meats 526 

" tongues 212 

Canvasing hams, test on 341 

meats 339 

Capacities of buildings, relative 31 

Cars, icing refrigerator 98, 525 

refrigerator 524 

Cart, hand 512 

Casings, beef bladders 181 

" beef middles 180 

beef weasands 181 

" bung gut skins 183 

classification of '. 179 

" color for sausage 356 

domestic rounds 179 

fatting machine for 178 

" for summer sausage 391 

" . handling 176 

preparation of ^ 176 

round 179 

yield of 179 

Canvas, whitewash for meat 340 

yellowwash for meat 341 

Cattle and hog killing plant, construction of small 37 

backing 85 

" bone department ) 166 

breast sawing 81 

caul pulling 81 

chilling 72 

" choppers for splitting 86 

" dressing, yields of 102 

" driving and yarding account 535 

feet . 170 

fell beating 84 

fell cutting 82 

" flooring 80 

" gutting 85 

" handling before slaughtering 72 

" heading , 75 



562 TOPICAL INDEX 

Cattle head splitter 168 

hides, clearing out of 87 

hides, dropping of 87 

hog and sheep slaughterhouse, construction of 42 

hoisting apparatus 81 

hoof puller 173 

hoof skinning 78 

horns 167 

jaw bones 170 

killing floor, double bed 79 

knocking 74 

leg breaking 80 

neck splitting 88 

resting pens 73 

ripping open 80 

rumping 84 

skinning 77 

skulls 169 

slaughterhouse, construction of 26 

slaughtering 72 

slaughtering account 536 

slaughtering, list of men required in 116 

slaughtering, wages paid for 116 

splitting 85 

sticking 75 

stunning 74 

tails, handling of 220 

tail sawing 85 

tests on yield from thirty-four 110 

yield from fifty-nine Texas 105 

yield from twenty, tests 107 

yield from twenty-two native 102 

Caul pulling, cattle 81 

Cervelat, smoking of 387, 393 

Cheese, head 371 

Chemical department 528 

Chickens, fattening 521 

Chilling cattle 72 

hogs 247 

" lamb tongues 244 

lard 418 

" room for hogs 263 

" room for hogs, shrinkage in 269 

" room for hogs, temperature in 265 

room, tests on shrinkage of hogs in 269 

sheep 242 

sheep pelts 243 

Choppers for splitting cattle 86 

Churn used in butterine factory 446 

Circulation, air 54 

" " curtain " system for brine 57 

Classification of casings 179 

Cleaning cars account 542 

Clear back 284 

" pork 298 

" belly 285 

" extra short 287 

Cod 162 



TOPICAL INDEX 563 

Cold tests on grease 439 

Colorados, hides 129. 

Color for sausage casings 356 

of English meats 323 

Coloring sweet pickle meats, formula for 337 

sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking, formula for 338 

vat 337 

Comparison of thermometer scales 518 

Compound for making pipe connections 67 

lard 419 

Concentrated tankage 200 

Construction, cattle slaughterhouse 26 

development of modern 18 

early methods of 17 

evolution of modern 19 

of beef cooler 27 

of cattle, hog and sheep slaughterhouse 42 

of coolers 54 

of oleo oil house. . 136 

of pens for hogs and sheep 250 

of small cattle and hog killing plant 37 

of small hog slaughterhouse 30 

of small slaughterhouse 39 

of tank house 184 

principle of gravitation in 25 

Cooked pressed ham 373 

" test on skinned shoulders for 375 

Cooking a tank 191 

schedule for sausage 383 

Cook water, roast beef 471 

Cooler and loading account 537 

" " " mutton, account 544 

Coolers, beef 27, 89 

" care of beef 91 

" construction of 54 

handling beef in 95 

" insulation of 55 

" requirements for beef ": 65 

" temperature in beef 92 

type to be avoided 71 

Cooling cylinders, lard 418 

Cooperage 497 

account 554 

" specifications 506 

Cost of butterine .' 462 

" " construction small hog slaughterhouse 36 

" curing dry salt meats 321 

" equipment for butterine factory 464 

" equipment for process butter factory 468 

" ham pickle 313 

" handling fats in oil house 162 

" labor in hog slaughtering 270 

" " labor in oil house 164 

Cottag'e ham 377 

Cotton seed oil 419 

" " " deodorizing 421 

" deodorizing tank for 423 

Covering, wire or brine pipe / 519 



564 TOPICAL INDEX 

Cream ripener, Boyd 445 

Cumberland cut 323 

Cured products used in making sausage 348 

Curing beef hams, formula for 221 

" dry salt meats 304 

" dry salt meats to smoke 320 

" for hams, sirup 312 

of hams 304 

" of hams to smoke 316 

of hides 127 

" of long cut hams 323 

"Curtain" system for brine circulation 57 

Cutter, oleo fat 138 

Cutting, cattle fell 82 

Cutting floor for hogs 273 

Cutting room account 551 

Cuts beef, yield in percentage on different 114 

" Cumberland 323 

" Dublin 327 

" hard short rib 279 

" hogs, test on yield of different 286 

" hogs, yields of 276 

" miscellaneous pork 293 



D'Arles sausage 399 

Defrosting room 217 

Deodorizing cotton seed oil 421 

" tank for cotton seed oil 423 

Division of labor 534 

Domestic rounds, casings 179 

" sausage 344 

" " inside dry color for 356 

" " inside water color for 355 

" " preservatives for 345 

" " shrinkage of 383 

Double bed killing floor for cattle 79 

Draining serum from blood, settling pan for 494 

Dressing, sheep 239 

yields of cattle 102 

Dried beef after smoking, shrinkage on 343 

" " hams, shrinkage on smoked 224 

" " smoking 342 

Drip pan for brine pipe 70 

Dryer, "stick" 200 

Dry room caution, sausage 392 

Dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing boxes 505 

meats 300, 319 

" cost of curing 321 

" curing of 304 

" curing to smoke 320 

pork curing account 546 

Dry sausage, preservative for 386 

Dublin cuts 327 



TOPICAL INDEX 



565 



Earth, fullers 413 

Elevator hoist 511 

Engine room account 554 

English meats, color of 323 

grading of 322 

" " packing of 329 

" shipping ages for 329 

Extract, beef 459 

from beef hearts 470 

Extra short clear 287 



Farmer sausage 395 

Eat cutter, oleo 138 

" mutton 161 

" oleo 136 

" tests on kidney and cod 163 

" tests on trimmings and seam 206 

Fattening chickens 521 

Fatting machine for casings 178 

Feet, cattle 170 

Fell beating, cattle 84 

cutting, cattle 82 

Fertilizer account 540 

analysis of 490 

composition of 484 

ingredients of 485 

machinery for handling 485 

method of treating blood for 491 

press, hydraulic . 196 

tankage for 487 

tests on blood for 492 

Filler, Hectograph 524 

Fillers, sausage .\ 349 

Filter press, care of 426 

for lard 426 

" for oleo oil 426 

Flooring cattle 80 

Formula for beef trimmings, pickle 225 

coloring sweet pickle meats 337 

coloring sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking 338 

curing beef harps 221 

export pig tongue, pickle 479 

inside dry color for domestic sausage 356 

inside water, color for domestic sausage 355 

pickle for hams piled in salt 308 

pickle for hams not piled in salt 309 

pickling beef trimmings 209 

preservative 225 

pumping hams, pickle 306 

pumping, pickle 311 

seasoning Lehigh Valley summer sausage 410 

varnish for Bologna sausage 357 

whitewash for meat canvas « 340 

yellowwash for meat canvas 341 



566 TOPICAL INDEX 

Formula for making beef fluid 471 

" blood sausage 36S 

" " " Bologna sausage 360 

" " " Bologna sausage in oil 37S> 

" " boneless pig feet 370 

" " " Braunschweiger sausage 398 

" " " butterine 457, 461 

cervelat 392 

" " " cheap paint 523 

" " " D'Arles sausage 399 

" " " farmer sausage 395 

" " " Frankfurt sausage 367 

" " " German salami sausage 403 

" " Gothair sausage 409 

" " " Gottberg sausage 397 

" " " head cheese 371 

" " " Hungarian salami sausage 404 

" " " kettle rendered lard 431 

" " Knoblauch sausage 364 

" " " Leona (long) sausage 364 

" " " liver sausage 370 

" " " lyon sausage 408 

" " " Milanese salami sausage 402 

" " minced ham 372 

Mortadella sausage ....406 

" " " New Jersey ham 375 

" " " Polish sausage 365 

" pork sausage 358 

" " " Swedish medwurst sausage 397 

" " " tongue sausage 369 

" " " Vienna Frankfurt sausage 368 

Fountain brush 89 

Frankfurt sausage 366 

in oil 382 

Vienna 368 

Freezer account 551 

boxes 502 

Freezing beef 92 

beef tongues 212 

Fresh pork packing account 545 

Fuel, paunch manure as 520 

Fullers earth 413 

" " and lard, tank for mixing 414 

kettle 415 



Galvanized iron brine pipe 63 

" versus iron for brine pipe 67 

Gang, "string" 234 

German salami sausage 403 

Glue 527 

Glue stock, hide 528 

Gothair sausage 409 

Gottberg sausage 397 

Government inspection 530 

specifications for packages 508 



TOPICAL INDEX 567 

Grading butterine 447 

" of English ineats 322 

of hides 128 

" oleo oil 139 

Gravitation in packing house construction, principle of 25 

Grease 411, 437 

cold tests on 439 

" temperatures at which to chill 440 

vats 43S 

Grubs in hides 129 

Gutting cattle 85 

H 

Hair and bristles, hog 482 

Ham, American short cut 292 

" Berlin 376 

boiled 316 

" boneless 377 

" cooked pressed 373 

cottage 377 

" facing and cutting 261 

minced 372 

New Jersey 375 

pickle, cost of 313 

sausage 373 

" test on skinned shoulders for cooked pressed 375 

Hams 292 

California 314 

" curing beef 221 

" curing of 304 

" curing of long cut 323 

formula for curing beef 221 

" handling of beef 220 

long cut 324 

Manchester 324 

" pickle for 308 

" pumping 306 

salting 325 

" shrinkage in boiling of 318 

" shrinkage on smoked dried beef 224 

" sirup curing for 312 

skinned 315 

" smoking test on beef > 223 

Staffordshire 324 

" stripping beef 220 

" test on canvasing 341 

" yields long cut , 330 

Hand cart T 512 

Handling beef in coolers 95 

" casings 176 

cattle 72 

" cattle before slaughtering 72 

" fats in oil house, cost of 162 

" meats in smoke house 331 

" of beef hams 220 

" of beef hearts 219 

" of cattle tails .' 220 



568 TOPICAL INDEX 

Handling of hides on killing floor 123 

" of live hogs 252 

" of livers 215 

" of sweetbreads 219 

Hangers, brine pipe 69 

Hansen's "Lactic" for making butterine 452 

Hard short rib, cut of 279 

Hasher for oleo oil making 141 

Head and feet, yield of cattle 175 

boning account 537 

cheese 371 

for rendering tank 189 

for rendering tank, man hole 190 

splitter, cattle 168 

Heading cattle 75 

Hearts, extract from beef 470 

handling of beef 219 

" preservatives for packing pork 346 

Hectograph filler 524 

Hide cellar account 538 

glue stock 528 

Hides, building of packs of 131 

butt brands 129 

clearing out of cattle 87 

Colorados 129 

" curing of 127 

dropping of cattle 87 

" grading of 128 

grubs in 129 

native - 129 

" on killing floor, handling of 123 

" salting of 130 

shrinkage of 127, 133 

storing of 126 

Texas 129 

trimming of green 132 

Hog bristles 482 

casing account 548 

cattle and sheep slaughterhouse, construction of 42 

chilling 247 

cutting account 545 

driving and yarding account 544 

hair account 548 

hair and bristles 482 

heads account 547 

heads, stuffed 377 

hoist 257 

slaughterhouse 249 

slaughterhouse, construction of small 30 

slaughtering 247 

traveller 512 

Hogs and sheep, construction of pens for 250 

arrangement of killing floor for 266 

chilling room for 263 

cutting floor for 273 

extra short rib 286 

handling of live 252 

in chill room, tests on shrinkage of 269 



TOPICAL INDEX 569 

Hogs, penning of 255 

refrigeration of 24S 

scalding of 258 

scraping 260 

stiaclvling of 256 

sliort clear 282 

shrinkage in chill room for 269 

slaughtering room for 264 

special test on lot of mixed 291 

splitting 265 

sticking 257 

" temperature in chill room for 265 

" test on different cuts 286 

" test showing yields of sides 279 

yields of cuts of 276 

Hoist, elevator 511 

for hogs 257 

Hoisting apparatus, cattle 81 

Holsteiner sausage 397 

Hoof press, hydraulic lard and tallow 194 

puller, cattle 173 

skinning, cattle 78 

Hooks, tinning 514 

Horns, cattle 167 

Hungarian salami sausage 404 

Hurford revolving wheel 255 

Hydraulic tankage and fertilizer press 196 

I 

Ice account, manufactured 552 

loading account 553 

Icing cars account 542 

refrigerator cars 98, 525 

Inside dry color for domestic sausage 356 

" water color for domestic sausage 355 

Inspection, United States Government 530 

Instructions, oil house 145 

Insulation for refrigeration 53 

Italian salami sausage 401 

J 

Jaw bones, cattle \ 170 

Jowl pork 303 

K 

Keith's "Butric" for making hutterine 452 

Kettle for fullers earth 415 

modern oleo oil . . 142 

" oleo oil settling 142 

" rendered lard 427 

Kidney fats, yield of 162 

Killing packer hogs account 545 

shipper hogs account 545 

Knob for prod pole ' 74 



570 TOPICAL INDEX 

Knoblauch sausage 364 

Knocking cattle 74 

Kosher killing 529 



Labor, division of 534 

for sheep slaughtering, cost of 241 

in hog house 270 

in hog slaughtering, cost of 270 

"Lactic" for making butterine, Hansen's 452 

Lamb tongues, chilling 244 

" test on yield of 245 

yield of 245 

Lard 411 

chilling 41S 

compound 419 

cooling cylinders 418 

filter press 426 

hoof press 194 

kettle rendered 427 

leaf 262 

neutral 431 

neutral No. 2 435 

oil, pressing 440 

packages 430 

refinery account 549 

refinery boxes 501 

refining 411 

rendered into neutral, test on leaf 435 

should be packed, temperatures at which 429 

temperatures at which to bleach 416 

test on chilled leaf 434 

test on warm leaf 434 

Large Bologna 363 

Leaf lard 262 

Leg breaking, cattle 80 

Legging sheep 239 

Lehigh Valley summer sausage 409 

Leona (large) sausage 365 

" (long) sausage 364 

Liver sausage 370 

" truck 216 

Livers, handling of 215 

Loading of beef 98 

Loin, beef 114 

clear pork 300 

" pork 299 

" rolled boneless pork 318 

Long clear pork 302 

cut hams 324 

cut hams, curing of 323 

cut tongues 212 

Lyon sausage 408 

M 

Manchester hams 324 

Man hole head for rendering tank 190 



TOPICAL INDEX 571 

Manufactured ice account 552 

Manufacture of stearine 155 

Manure as fuel 520 

Meat boxes, smoked 502 

Meat canvas, whitewash for 340 

" yellowwash for 341 

Meat, weasand 209 

Meats, canning of 526 

" canvasing 339 

" color of English 323 

" cost of curing dry salt 321 

" curing of dry salt 304 

dry salt 300, 319 

" formula for coloring sweet pickle 337 

" for smoke house, soaking 331 

" grading of English 322 

" in smoke house, handling 331 

" overhauling of 329 

packing of English 329 

" paper for wrapping smoked 339 

piling of 328 

preserving , 94 

" shipping ages for English 329 

time required for soaking 332 

Medwurst sausage, Swedish 397 

Melted oleo 135 

Mess pork , 296 

Milanese salami sausage 402 

Milk and cream for butterine 449 

for process butter 467 

Milk in making butterine, handling of 441 

test to determine acidity of 450 

Minced ham 372 

Miscellaneous account 554 

Mortadella sausage 406 

Mutton fat 161 

N 

Native hides 129 

Neatsfoot oil 174 

Neck splitting, cattle 88 

Neutral lard 431 

No. 2 \ 435 

New Jersey ham 375 



Offal account 552 

boxes 502 

Oil, Bologna sausage in 379 

" cotton seed 419 

deodorizing cotton seed 421 

" Frankfurt sausage in 382 

grading of oleo 139 

house, cost of handling fats in 162 

" " cost of labor in ^ 164 

" " instructions 145 



572 TOPICAL INDEX 

Oil house, loading account 541 

yields 157 

" " yields, tests on 158 

" kettle, oleo 140 

" neatsfoot 174 

" pork sausage in 381 

" press, oleo 153 

" pressing lard 440 

" receiver, oleo 154 

temperatures, oleo 151 

" yellow 421 

Oleo 134 

fat 13G 

fat cutter 138 

melted 135 

melters, sheep account 544 

melting account 540 

oil 134 

" filter press 426 

" grading 139 

" hasher 141 

" house, construction of 136 

" kettle 140 

" kettle, modern 142 

" packages 157 

" press 153 

" receiver 154 

" seeding trucks 149 

" settling kettle 142 

" temperatures 151 

presses account 541 

presses, sheep account 544 

scrap, tests on 163 

Operation of tank house 184 

Overhauling of meats 329 



Packages, Government specifications for 508 

lard 430 

" oleo oil and stearine 157 

Packer, stearine 156 

Packing Bologna sausage in oil 380 

" boxes, pork 498 

" boxes, sausage 500 

English meats 329 

" fresh beef, preservatives for 346 

of beef 99 

" tripe, tests on 227 

Packs of hides, building of 131 

Paint, formula for making cheap 523 

Paper for wrapping smoked meats 339 

Paunch manure as fuel 520 

Pelting sheep 239 

Penning of hogs 255 

Pens for hogs and sheep, construction of 250 

Percentage of yields different cuts hogs 276 



TOPICAL INDEX 573 

Phosphate from tankage 204 

Pickings 162 

Pickle, cost of ham 313 

for cured products used in making sausage ....... 3i9 

for hams not piled in salt 309 

for hams piled in salt 308 

for pumping hams 30G 

for tripe, preservative 228 

formula for beef trimmings 225 

for export pig tongue ' 479 

for pumping !!!!!!!! 311 

Pickling formula for beef trimmings 209 

Pig feet ........! 472 

" account .' 547 

boneless " 1 370 

converted into neutral kettle rendered and prime steam 

lard, test on 436 

splitter, hand 474 

splitting machine 473 

tests on 475 



snouts 



.480 



" tests on 48]^ 

tongues 477 

tongues account .......' . [ .547 

tongues, pickle formula for export .....!..... .479 

tongues, tests on ' ' ^ 478 

Piling of meats 328 

Pipe connecting, method of 67 

galvanized iron brine . . . ! 63 

galvanized iron versus iron for brine ......' 67 

hangers, brine 69 

Piping for refrigeration ' ' 5^ 

Pumping pickle, formula for 311 

Polish sausage .'.'....'. 365 

Pole, prod ^74 

Pork and beef trimmings, preservative for 348 

^^5;k , ::::::::::3oo 

^f^y ••••• 300 

clear back , 29S 

hearts, preservatives for packing 346 

j°?^i ■.■;::::::::303 

loin 299 

loin, clear 3qq 

loins, rolled boneless , 318 

long clear 302 

™^^s 296 

miscellaneous cuts . 293 

packing boxes 498 

II " ^dry salt .'..'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.': '.'.505 

fresh 503 

sweet pickle 505 

rib, brisket 299 

.358 



sausage 



sausage in oil 38 j^ 

sausage, preservatives for 346 

shoulders 293 

sides ..'.'.".' .....'.'.'.'.'.['.'.'.'.'.'.""['294: 

trimming room account '......'!!.' 546 



574 TOPICAL INDEX 

Preparation of casings 176 

Preparatory "starter" for butterine 452 

Preservatives for domestic sausage 345 

for dry sausage 386 

for packing fresh beef 346 

for paclting pork; hearts 346 

for porlv and beef trimmings 348 

for pork sausage 346 

formula 225 

pickle for tripe 228 

Preserving meats 94 

Press, care of filter 426 

" for oil or oleo oil, filter 426 

" for oleo oil 153 

" hydraulic lard and tallow hoof 194 

" water 199 

Pressed ham, cooked 373 

Pressing lard oil 440 

" tankage 195 

Prime steam lard account 547 

Pritch for cattle 78 

Process butter 464 

milk and cream for 467 

" factory, cost of equipment for 468 

" " machinery required for making 465 

Prod Pole 74 

Production and value of tankage 203 

Products, bone 166 

Puller, cattle hoof 173 

Pump, blood 495 

Pumping hams 306 



Rack, smoke house 334 

for bone washing 172 

Receiver, oleo oil 154 

Refining lard 411 

Refrigeration 49 

" amount necessary 51 

" insulation for 53 

" of hogs 248 

" piping for 56 

" requirements, estimating 52 

theory of 50 

" theory versus practice 52 

Refrigerator boxes 508 

" cars 524 

" cars, icing 98, 525 

Regular rib cut 280 

Rendered tallow 135 

Rendering tank 186 

head for 189 

Renovated butter 464 

Resting pens, cattle 73 

Rib beef Ill 

" belly 289 

" hard short cut 279 



TOPICAL INDEX 575 

Ribbing beef 97 

Ripener, Boyd cream 445 

Ripping open cattle 80 

Roast beef cook water 471 

" soak water 471 

Roll beef 113 

Rolled boneless pork loins 318 

Room, defrosting 217 

Round Bologna 363 

" casings 179 

Rumping cattle 81 



Salami sausage, German 403 

Hungarian 404 

Italian 401 

Thuringer 405 

Salt meats, dry 300 

Salting hams 325 

of hides 130 

Sausage, air drying and smoking 386 

blood 368 

Bologna 359 

Braunschweiger 398 

casings, color for 356 

casings for summer 391 

cooking schedule for 383 

cured products used in making 348 

D'Arles 399 

domestic , 344 

dry room caution 392 

farmer 395 

fillers 349 

Frankfurt 366 

Gothair 409 

Gottberg 397 

ham V 373 

Holsteiner 397 

Hungarian salami 404 

in oil, Bologna 379 

in oil, Frankfurt 382 

in oil, pork 381 

inside dry color for domestic 356 

inside water color for domestic y 355 

into smoke house, devices for running 353 

Knoblauch 364 

Lehigh Valley summer 409 

Leona (large)^ 365 

Leona (long) " 364 

liver 370 

lyon 408 

]\Iilanese salami 402 

Mortadella 406 

packing and loading account 550 

packing boxes 500 

pickle for cured products used in making 349 

Polish 365 



576 TOPICAL INDEX 

Sausage, pork 358 

" preservative for domestic 345 

" preservative for dry 386 

" preservative for porli 346 

" room manufacture account 549 

" shrinlvage of domestic 383 

" smoke house for domestic 350 

" smolie house for summer 388 

" smoldng Bologna 362 

" smoking cervelat 387 

" smoking schedule for 382 

" stack, smoke house 351 

" Sv^redish medwurst 397 

" Thuringer salami 405 

tongue 369 

" varnish for Bologna 356 

Vienna Frankfurt 368 

Saws, bone 170 

Scalding of hogs 258 

Scraping hogs 260 

Scrapple 378 

Scrap vat 158, 188 

Seeding trucks 149 

Settling kettle for oleo oil 142 

" pan for draining serum from blood 494 

Shackling of hogs 256 

Sheep casings account 544 

chilling 242 

" construction of pens for 250 

" dressing ; 239 

" driving and yarding account 543 

" killing account 543 

pelting 239 

" pelt loading account 543 

" pelts account 543 

" pelts, chilling 243 

" slaughtering 236 

slaughtering, cost of 241 

" slaughtering, wages paM for 241 

tongues account 544 

Shipping ages for English meats 329 

Short clear hogs 282 

clears, square 328 

cut tongues 212 

fat back 290 

rib, cut hard 279 

ribs, export 32S 

Shoulders, California 315 

pork 293 

Shrinkage in boiling of hams 318 

" in hog chill room 269 

" in smoke house 335 

" in smoke house, test on 338 

" of butterine 462 

" of domestic sausage 383 

" of dried beef after smoking 343 

of hides 127, 133 

" of smoked dried beef hams. 224 



TOPICAL INDEX 577 

Sides, hogs, test showing yield of 279 

pork 294 

" Staffordshire 326 

" to avoid smoking, formula for coloring sweet pickle 338 

Wiltshire 325 

Yorkshire 326 

Simplex butter worker '. 457 

Sinew glue stock 174 

Sirloin butt 109 

strip 110 

Sirup curing for hams 312 

Skinned hams 292, 315 

shoulders for cooked pressed ham, test on 375 

Skinning cattle 77 

Skirt trimming, beef 88 

Skulls, cattle 169 

Slaughterhouse, construction of small 39 

construction of small cattle and hog 37 

construction of small hog 30 

" cost of construction of small hog 36 

hog 249 

Slaughtering cattle 72 

floor for hogs, arrangement of 266 

hogs 247 

room for hogs 264 

sheep 236 

cost of 241 

wages paid for 241 

Smoke, curing dry salt meats to 320 

" curing of hams to 316 

Smoke house account 548 

" " canvasing and whitewashing account 548 

devices for running sausage into 353 

for domestic sausage 350 

" " for summer sausage 388 

handling meats in 331 

rack 334 

rack, truck for ^ 336 

" " sausage stack 351 

shrinkage in 335 

soaking meats for 331 

temperatures in 333 

test for shrinkage in 338 

Smoked dried beef hams, shrinkage on 224 

meat boxes * 502 

meats, paper for wrapping 339 

Smoking Bologna sausage 362 

cervelat 387, 393 

dried beef ^ 342 

schedule for sausage 382 

summer and dry sausage 386 

test on beef hams 223 

Snouts, pig 480 

Soaking meats for smoke house 331 

" " time required for 332 

Soak water, roast beef 471 

Splitter, cattle head 168 

hand, pig feet '. . .474 



578 TOPICAL INDEX 

Splitting cattle 85 

cattle, neck 88 

hogs 265 

machine, pig feet 473 

Spreaders, beef 82 

Stable account 553 

Stack, smoke house sausage 351 

Staffordshire hams 324 

sides 326 

"Starter" for butterine, preparatory 452 

for making butterine 448 

Stearine 134 

" how produced 155 

" packages 157 

" packer . . . . » . , , . 156 

Sticking cattle 75 

hogs , 257 

"Stick" dryer 200 

water 199 

"String gang" 234 

Stripping beef hams 220 

Strip, sirloin 110 

Storing of hides 126 

Stunning cattle 74 

Stuffed hog heads 377 

Summer sausage, casings for. 391 

smoke house for 388 

Swedish medwurst sausage 397 

Sweetbreads, handling of 219 

Sweet pickle meats, formula for coloring 337 

" " pork curing account 546 

" " pork packing boxes 505 

" " sides to avoid smoking, formula for coloring 338 



Tail sawing, cattle ... . .................................. 85 

Tails, handling of cattle. ,..,.........,,... 220 

Tallow 134 

hoop press 194 

rendered 135 

trimming account 536 

Tankage, ammonia from '. . . 204 

" and fertilizer press, hydraulic 196 

" concentrated 200 

" for fertilizer 487 

" phosphate from 204 

" pressing 195 

production and value of 203 

Tank for cotton seed oil, deodorizing 423 

" for mixing fullers earth and lard 414 

head for rendering 189 

" house account 539 

" house, construction of 184 

" house, operation of 184 

" how to cook a 191 

" rendering 186 

" water ... 198 



TOPICAL INDEX 579 

Tank water, percentage solids and liquids from 206 

yield of materials in 206 

Temperature at which lard should be packed 429 

" at which to bleach lard 416 

" at which to chill grease 440 

" for oleo oil 151 

" in beef coolers 92 

" in hog chill room 265 

in smoke house 333 

Tenderloin, beef 112 

Test for shrinkage in smoke house 338 

on beef ham s, smoking 223 

on canvasing hams 341 

on chilled leaf lard 434 

on freezing beef tongues 212 

on leaf lard rendered into neutral 435 

on lot of mixed hogs 291 

on pig feet converted into neutral kettle rendered lard and 

prime steam lard 436 

on skimmed shoulders for cooked pressed ham 375 

on warm leaf lard 434 

on yield of different cuts hogs 288 

on yield of lamb tongues 245 

showing yield of cattle head and feet 175 

showing yields of sides of hogs 279 

to determine acidity of milk 450 

Testing milk for butterine 448 

Tests on blood for fertilizer 492 

" canning tongues 213 

" grease, cold 439 

" kidney and cod fats 163 

" long cut tongues 213 

" oil house yields 158 

" oleo scrap 163 

" packing tripe 227 

" pig feet '475 

" pig snouts 481 

'■' pig tongues .^ 478 

" short cut tongues 213 

" shrinkage of hogs in chill room 269 

" tanking 206 

" trimmings and seam fat 206 

" tripe 229 

" yield from twenty cattle 107 

" yield from twenty-two native cattie 102 

" yield from thirty-four cattle 110 

" yield from fifty-nine Texas cattle 105 

Texas hides 129 

Theory of refrigeration 50 

" versus practice, refrigeration 52 

Thermometers 517 

Thermometer scales, comparison of 518 

Thuringer salami sausage 405 

Tinning hooks 514 

Tongue sausage 369 

Tongues account 541 

beef 210 

" canning : 212 



580 TOPICAL INDEX 

Tongues, freezing beef 212 

long cut 212 

pig 477 

sliort cut 212 

Traveller, hog 512 

Trimmed mess pork 296 

Trimming beef 96 

bruises on beef 88 

" loading pork account 546 

" of green hides 132 

skirt, beef 88 

Trimmings and seam fat, tests on 206 

beef 209 

" pickle formula for beef 225 

" tests on tripe 207 

Tripe account 552 

preservative, pickle for 228 

tests 229 

trimmings, tests on 207 

Truck, barrel 512 

" for smoke house rack 336 

liver 216 

seeding 149 

V 

Varnish for Bologna sausage 356 

Vat, coloring 337 

" for grease 438 

" scrap 158,188 

Vienna Frankfurt sausage 368 

W 

Wages in hog house 270 

paid for cattle slaughtering 116 

" paid for sheep slaughtering 241 

Washing of beef 88 

Water, press 199 

"stick" 199 

tank 198 

Weighing beef 99 

Weasands, beef, casings 181 

Weasand Bologna 364 

meat 209 

Wheel, Hurford revolving 255 

Whitewash for meat canvas 340 

Wiltshire sides 325 

Wire or brine pipe covering 519 

Wrapping smoked meats, paper for 339 

Y 

Yard cleaning account 553 

Yellow oil 421 

" wash for meat canvas 341 

Yield from twenty cattle, tests 107 



TOPICAL INDEX 581 

Yield from twenty-two native cattle, tests 102 

from thirty-four cattle, tests on 110 

from fifty-nine Texas cattle 105 

in percentage on different cuts of beef 114 

of casings 183 

of cattle head and feet, test on 175 

of kidney fats 162 

of lamb tongues 245 

of materials in tank 206 

Yields different cuts hogs 276 

long cut hams and Cumberlands 330 

of cattle dressing 102 

" oil house 157 

tests on oil house 158 

Yorkshire sides 326 



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PRACTICAL USE OF ICE MANUFACTURERS, COLD STORAGE MEN, CONTRACTORS, EN- 
GINEERS, BREWERS, PACKERS AND OTHERS INTERESTED IN THE APPLICATION OF RE- 
FRIGERATION. 

This book presents in a convenient form the rules, tables, formulas and direc- 
tions which are needed by contractors and engineers of refrigerating machinery, ice 
manufacturers, cold storage men, brewers, meat freezing establishments, packers and 
all others interested in the practical application of refrigeration. It is, in fact, de- 
signed to give ready and plain answers to most of such questions as are daily oc- 
curring in any one of the different branches of practical refrigeration. 



This was the first and only work ever published treating of all the various 
branches of theoretical and applied refrigeration, and will be found to contain a 
large amount of information which would be looked for in vain elsewhere _ This 
applies alike to the practical data and to the "rule-of-thumb" rnatter relating to 
dimensions of machinery, piping, etc., which the author has diligently collected 
from all available sources. The practical working conditions; that is, the quantity 
of pipe surface, insulation, differences in temperature, etc., vary so much, not only 
in different plants, but even in one and the same establishment, that rigid calcu- 
lations, based on certain assumed conditions in relation to the transference of re- 
frigeration, etc., do not always apply. It seems indispensable, therefore, that pro- 
portions and dimensions which have been found to meet frequently prevailing con- 
ditions in practice should not be disregarded. This new departure in the Com- 
pend will certainly do much to bring about more uniform and more rational usage 
in this direction. The addition of these features will_ also enable those less expert 
at calculations to obtain ready answers to many questions by turning to a practical 
rule or table, while those seeking greater accuracy may utilize the formulje, etc. 

The seventh edition of this work is a book of over 4.50 pages and, besides a 
comprehensive table of contents, has also a complete topical index. The book is 
jirinted on fine paper, and is of a convenient size, either for pocket or for the 
engineer's table. It is a book that every man connected, directly or indirectly, with 
ice making or refrigeration in any capacity should have at hand for daily reference. 

I Bound in Cloth, , . $3.00 

fKl^t. I Bqu^jJ Jj^ Flexible Morocco, 3.50 



Prarttral Ololb g^torag^ 

By Madison Cooper. 

the theory, design and construction of lilhi-dings .and apparatus for the preser- 
vation of perishable products, approved methods of applying refrigeration 
and the care and handling of eggs, fruit, dairy products, etc 
This is the first work ever published in which the theory and practice of cold 
storage in all its varied applications to commercial and industrial life has been 
thoroughly and exhaustively treated. The book is intended to cover the field of 
applied refrigeration with the exception of the technical and theoretical side of the 
mechanical production of ice and refrigeration, which has already been very fully 
covered by several very comprehensive works. 

Much valuable information is given in this book on the theory, design and con- 
struction of cold storage buildings. In the chapter on INSULATION the author 
has aimed to give the results of the best information at present obtainable on this 
subject both in the United States and in foreign countries. It is the most ex- 
haustive treatment of this important subject that has yet appeared in print. It 
deals very thoroughly with the various insulating materials and the proper applica- 
tion of same, giving the results of many careful tests of different materials and 
forms of construction. 

The subjects of AIR CIRCULATION, VENTILATION and HUMIDITY are 
handled in a very comprehensive manner, and much valuable information is given. 
The chapters on the practical operation of cold storage houses and the care, handling, 
packing and storing of perishable products have been written largely from the 
author's practical experience, supplemented by information obtained from practical 
cold storage men. General directions ar% also given for the handling of a cold 
storage house witliout reference to any jiarticular product, and if these are followed 
understandingly, and care and jvidgment is used, a cold storage manager may avoid 
many of the errors common to those new in the business. 

The following are a few of the subjects U]ion wliicli new and valual^le informa- 
tion is given, much of which has never before appeared in print: 

Handling: and Storing: Egg:s, Butter and Cbeese, Apples, Fears and Peaches. 
Furs and Fabrics, Etc., Etc. 

Freezing and Storing Fish. ) 

Creamery and Dairy Refrigeration. 

Cold Storage for Fruit Growers and Nurserymen. 

Cold Storage and Freezing Temperatures for Various Products. 

Use of Absorbents and Calcium Chloride. 

Shipping Perishable Products. 
The book also contains much information regarding the use of ice — both natural 
and artificial — as a practical refrigerant even on a large scale, which has not here- 
tofore been fully described. Tliere are special chapters on the HARVESTING, 
HANDLING and STORING of ICE. Those new in the business and persons hav- 
ing a comparatively small amount of ice to house may obtain much information in 
regard to the methods used and select such tools and devices from those described 
as will best suit their particular needs. The design, construction and insulation of 
the ice house, from the simple farm ice house to the large commercial house, are 
fully described 

Besides the above, a vast amount of valuable miscellaneous information is 
given on the storing of various products and the care and maintenance of cold 
storage warehouses. The book will be found very helpful in solving the various 
problems that arise daily in the operation of a cold storage warehouse. 



The volume is 9J^x6>2 inches in size, containing over 550 pages, printed on 
fine enamel paper, specially made for this book, and profusely illustrated with dia- 
grams, sectional views and naif-tone engravings. 

PRICE ^ ^°""^ ^" Cloth, . . $3.00 
\ Bound in Full Morocco, . 4.50 

marlitorg for Spfng^ratton 

By Norman Selfe, M. E. C. E, 

being sundry observations with regard to the principal appliances employed 
in ice making and refrigeration, and upon the laws relating to the ex- 
pansion and compression of gases, with descriptions and illustrations of 
- the latest makes of ice making and refrigerating jmachines. 

In this work the author gives lucid explanations of the general principles on 
which refrigerating machines operate and analizes the various qualities necessary 
and desirable in any refrigerating plant. A great many matters relating to the con- 
struction and practical working of such machinery, as well as to the distinctive char- 
acteristics of different refrigerating systeins, are now presented, either in a new 
shape or for the first time. 

This book is written on different lines from any previous work dealing with the 
machinery used in its application. It contains twenty chapters describing every 
subject. It is a book of over 400 ])ages, treating of practical refrigeration, and the 
tyije of modern ice making and refrigerating machinery, and is illustrated with over 
:>i\() engravings of the best known machines and their details. It has also a com- 
plete topical index. It is a work that will prove of great value to every ice and 
cold storage man who wants to produce the best results with the least primary in- 
vestment of capital, the smallest cost of maintenance and the lowest working e.x- 
]ienses. 

The work is adapted alike for the Engineer, the Capitalist, the Amateur and the 
Expert, and embodies forty years' experience in the principles and practice of me- 
chanical refrigeration. 

This book will help to a fuller understanding of the requirements and possi- 
bilities of a modern refrigerating or ice making plant. 

( Bound in Cloth, . . $3 50 
±-Kicis I Bound in Full Morocco, . 4,50 



Uefrigpratian iH^morattlia 

By John Levey. 

a collection of useful information relating to ice making and refrigerating, 

gathered from engine room practice. 

In this little book the author has endeavored to assemble a number of useful 
memoranda and tables such as are suitable for instant use by any one, whether an 
accomplished refrigerating engineer, or an assistant, or a beginner, and all in plain 
every-day engine room language and in plain figures. 

All algebraic forniulx have been excluded, with the idea of placing the book in 
the hands of the man at the throttle in such shape that. he may understand it with- 
out sitting tip all night to figure it out. 

Short chapters have been devoted to the various parts of refrigerating plants, of 
ice factories, packing houses and breweries, and to the general care and arrangement 
of plants. The book also gives many valuable hints and suggestions for overhauling 
and making repairs. 

'J"he rules and tables for obtaining the size of compressors retiuired for different 
duties and for the amount of liipe for condensers and storage rooms will be val- 
uable to parties intending to purchase refrigerating or ice making idanls, and to 
engineers expecting to take charge of or install new plants. 

The book is of convenient size to carry in the vest pocket, so every engineer 
can have his practical memoranda at hand at all times. 

PRICE : Bound in Flexible Morocco, 75 Cents. 



BOOK DEPARTMENT. 



In addition to these and other books published by us on technical subjects, by 
leading authorities, which are recognized the world over as st^^ndard works, we are 
prepared to supply promptly any books of a technical or general nature other than 
those of our own publication, as well as any of the trade journals or class publica- 
tions. ^\'e can furnish a complete list of books and technical publications relating to 
lee Making, Refrigerating, Packing, Meats, Provisions, Creamery, Dairy, Brewing 
and other industries, any of which we can supply promptly at publisher's price. 

If you are in need of any special book or publication, or desire leading works 
on any special subject, communicate with us direct. 

BooKl^Tp^A^RfMENT NICKERSON ^ COLLINS CO. 

315 DEARBORN STREET, CHICAGO 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




010 091 441 4 



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